Welcome to mypy documentation!¶
Mypy is a static type checker for Python.
Type checkers help ensure that you’re using variables and functions in your code correctly. With mypy, add type hints (PEP 484) to your Python programs, and mypy will warn you when you use those types incorrectly.
Python is a dynamic language, so usually you’ll only see errors in your code when you attempt to run it. Mypy is a static checker, so it finds bugs in your programs without even running them!
Here is a small example to whet your appetite:
number = input("What is your favourite number?")
print("It is", number + 1) # error: Unsupported operand types for + ("str" and "int")
Adding type hints for mypy does not interfere with the way your program would otherwise run. Think of type hints as similar to comments! You can always use the Python interpreter to run your code, even if mypy reports errors.
Mypy is designed with gradual typing in mind. This means you can add type hints to your code base slowly and that you can always fall back to dynamic typing when static typing is not convenient.
Mypy has a powerful and easy-to-use type system, supporting features such as type inference, generics, callable types, tuple types, union types, structural subtyping and more. Using mypy will make your programs easier to understand, debug, and maintain.
Note
Although mypy is production ready, there may be occasional changes that break backward compatibility. The mypy development team tries to minimize the impact of changes to user code. In case of a major breaking change, mypy’s major version will be bumped.
Contents¶
Getting started¶
This chapter introduces some core concepts of mypy, including function
annotations, the typing module, stub files, and more.
If you’re looking for a quick intro, see the mypy cheatsheet.
If you’re unfamiliar with the concepts of static and dynamic type checking, be sure to read this chapter carefully, as the rest of the documentation may not make much sense otherwise.
Installing and running mypy¶
Mypy requires Python 3.8 or later to run. You can install mypy using pip:
$ python3 -m pip install mypy
Once mypy is installed, run it by using the mypy tool:
$ mypy program.py
This command makes mypy type check your program.py file and print
out any errors it finds. Mypy will type check your code statically: this
means that it will check for errors without ever running your code, just
like a linter.
This also means that you are always free to ignore the errors mypy reports, if you so wish. You can always use the Python interpreter to run your code, even if mypy reports errors.
However, if you try directly running mypy on your existing Python code, it will most likely report little to no errors. This is a feature! It makes it easy to adopt mypy incrementally.
In order to get useful diagnostics from mypy, you must add type annotations to your code. See the section below for details.
Dynamic vs static typing¶
A function without type annotations is considered to be dynamically typed by mypy:
def greeting(name):
return 'Hello ' + name
By default, mypy will not type check dynamically typed functions. This means that with a few exceptions, mypy will not report any errors with regular unannotated Python.
This is the case even if you misuse the function!
def greeting(name):
return 'Hello ' + name
# These calls will fail when the program runs, but mypy does not report an error
# because "greeting" does not have type annotations.
greeting(123)
greeting(b"Alice")
We can get mypy to detect these kinds of bugs by adding type annotations (also
known as type hints). For example, you can tell mypy that greeting both accepts
and returns a string like so:
# The "name: str" annotation says that the "name" argument should be a string
# The "-> str" annotation says that "greeting" will return a string
def greeting(name: str) -> str:
return 'Hello ' + name
This function is now statically typed: mypy will use the provided type hints
to detect incorrect use of the greeting function and incorrect use of
variables within the greeting function. For example:
def greeting(name: str) -> str:
return 'Hello ' + name
greeting(3) # Argument 1 to "greeting" has incompatible type "int"; expected "str"
greeting(b'Alice') # Argument 1 to "greeting" has incompatible type "bytes"; expected "str"
greeting("World!") # No error
def bad_greeting(name: str) -> str:
return 'Hello ' * name # Unsupported operand types for * ("str" and "str")
Being able to pick whether you want a function to be dynamically or statically typed can be very helpful. For example, if you are migrating an existing Python codebase to use static types, it’s usually easier to migrate by incrementally adding type hints to your code rather than adding them all at once. Similarly, when you are prototyping a new feature, it may be convenient to initially implement the code using dynamic typing and only add type hints later once the code is more stable.
Once you are finished migrating or prototyping your code, you can make mypy warn you
if you add a dynamic function by mistake by using the --disallow-untyped-defs
flag. You can also get mypy to provide some limited checking of dynamically typed
functions by using the --check-untyped-defs flag.
See The mypy command line for more information on configuring mypy.
Strict mode and configuration¶
Mypy has a strict mode that enables a number of additional checks,
like --disallow-untyped-defs.
If you run mypy with the --strict flag, you
will basically never get a type related error at runtime without a corresponding
mypy error, unless you explicitly circumvent mypy somehow.
However, this flag will probably be too aggressive if you are trying to add static types to a large, existing codebase. See Using mypy with an existing codebase for suggestions on how to handle that case.
Mypy is very configurable, so you can start with using --strict
and toggle off individual checks. For instance, if you use many third
party libraries that do not have types,
--ignore-missing-imports
may be useful. See Introduce stricter options for how to build up to --strict.
See The mypy command line and The mypy configuration file for a complete reference on configuration options.
More complex types¶
So far, we’ve added type hints that use only basic concrete types like
str and float. What if we want to express more complex types,
such as “a list of strings” or “an iterable of ints”?
For example, to indicate that some function can accept a list of
strings, use the list[str] type (Python 3.9 and later):
def greet_all(names: list[str]) -> None:
for name in names:
print('Hello ' + name)
names = ["Alice", "Bob", "Charlie"]
ages = [10, 20, 30]
greet_all(names) # Ok!
greet_all(ages) # Error due to incompatible types
The list type is an example of something called a generic type: it can
accept one or more type parameters. In this case, we parameterized list
by writing list[str]. This lets mypy know that greet_all accepts specifically
lists containing strings, and not lists containing ints or any other type.
In the above examples, the type signature is perhaps a little too rigid. After all, there’s no reason why this function must accept specifically a list – it would run just fine if you were to pass in a tuple, a set, or any other custom iterable.
You can express this idea using collections.abc.Iterable:
from collections.abc import Iterable # or "from typing import Iterable"
def greet_all(names: Iterable[str]) -> None:
for name in names:
print('Hello ' + name)
This behavior is actually a fundamental aspect of the PEP 484 type system: when
we annotate some variable with a type T, we are actually telling mypy that
variable can be assigned an instance of T, or an instance of a subtype of T.
That is, list[str] is a subtype of Iterable[str].
This also applies to inheritance, so if you have a class Child that inherits from
Parent, then a value of type Child can be assigned to a variable of type Parent.
For example, a RuntimeError instance can be passed to a function that is annotated
as taking an Exception.
As another example, suppose you want to write a function that can accept either
ints or strings, but no other types. You can express this using the
Union type. For example, int is a subtype of Union[int, str]:
from typing import Union
def normalize_id(user_id: Union[int, str]) -> str:
if isinstance(user_id, int):
return f'user-{100_000 + user_id}'
else:
return user_id
The typing module contains many other useful types.
For a quick overview, look through the mypy cheatsheet.
For a detailed overview (including information on how to make your own generic types or your own type aliases), look through the type system reference.
Note
When adding types, the convention is to import types
using the form from typing import Union (as opposed to doing
just import typing or import typing as t or from typing import *).
For brevity, we often omit imports from typing or collections.abc
in code examples, but mypy will give an error if you use types such as
Iterable without first importing them.
Note
In some examples we use capitalized variants of types, such as
List, and sometimes we use plain list. They are equivalent,
but the prior variant is needed if you are using Python 3.8 or earlier.
Local type inference¶
Once you have added type hints to a function (i.e. made it statically typed), mypy will automatically type check that function’s body. While doing so, mypy will try and infer as many details as possible.
We saw an example of this in the normalize_id function above – mypy understands
basic isinstance checks and so can infer that the user_id variable was of
type int in the if-branch and of type str in the else-branch.
As another example, consider the following function. Mypy can type check this function
without a problem: it will use the available context and deduce that output must be
of type list[float] and that num must be of type float:
def nums_below(numbers: Iterable[float], limit: float) -> list[float]:
output = []
for num in numbers:
if num < limit:
output.append(num)
return output
For more details, see Type inference and type annotations.
Types from libraries¶
Mypy can also understand how to work with types from libraries that you use.
For instance, mypy comes out of the box with an intimate knowledge of the
Python standard library. For example, here is a function which uses the
Path object from the pathlib standard library module:
from pathlib import Path
def load_template(template_path: Path, name: str) -> str:
# Mypy knows that `template_path` has a `read_text` method that returns a str
template = template_path.read_text()
# ...so it understands this line type checks
return template.replace('USERNAME', name)
If a third party library you use declares support for type checking, mypy will type check your use of that library based on the type hints it contains.
However, if the third party library does not have type hints, mypy will complain about missing type information.
prog.py:1: error: Library stubs not installed for "yaml"
prog.py:1: note: Hint: "python3 -m pip install types-PyYAML"
prog.py:2: error: Library stubs not installed for "requests"
prog.py:2: note: Hint: "python3 -m pip install types-requests"
...
In this case, you can provide mypy a different source of type information, by installing a stub package. A stub package is a package that contains type hints for another library, but no actual code.
$ python3 -m pip install types-PyYAML types-requests
Stubs packages for a distribution are often named types-<distribution>.
Note that a distribution name may be different from the name of the package that
you import. For example, types-PyYAML contains stubs for the yaml
package.
For more discussion on strategies for handling errors about libraries without type information, refer to Missing imports.
For more information about stubs, see Stub files.
Next steps¶
If you are in a hurry and don’t want to read lots of documentation before getting started, here are some pointers to quick learning resources:
Read the mypy cheatsheet.
Read Using mypy with an existing codebase if you have a significant existing codebase without many type annotations.
Read the blog post about the Zulip project’s experiences with adopting mypy.
If you prefer watching talks instead of reading, here are some ideas:
Carl Meyer: Type Checked Python in the Real World (PyCon 2018)
Greg Price: Clearer Code at Scale: Static Types at Zulip and Dropbox (PyCon 2018)
Look at solutions to common issues with mypy if you encounter problems.
You can ask questions about mypy in the mypy issue tracker and typing Gitter chat.
For general questions about Python typing, try posting at typing discussions.
You can also continue reading this document and skip sections that aren’t relevant for you. You don’t need to read sections in order.
Type hints cheat sheet¶
This document is a quick cheat sheet showing how to use type annotations for various common types in Python.
Variables¶
Technically many of the type annotations shown below are redundant, since mypy can usually infer the type of a variable from its value. See Type inference and type annotations for more details.
# This is how you declare the type of a variable
age: int = 1
# You don't need to initialize a variable to annotate it
a: int # Ok (no value at runtime until assigned)
# Doing so can be useful in conditional branches
child: bool
if age < 18:
child = True
else:
child = False
Useful built-in types¶
# For most types, just use the name of the type in the annotation
# Note that mypy can usually infer the type of a variable from its value,
# so technically these annotations are redundant
x: int = 1
x: float = 1.0
x: bool = True
x: str = "test"
x: bytes = b"test"
# For collections on Python 3.9+, the type of the collection item is in brackets
x: list[int] = [1]
x: set[int] = {6, 7}
# For mappings, we need the types of both keys and values
x: dict[str, float] = {"field": 2.0} # Python 3.9+
# For tuples of fixed size, we specify the types of all the elements
x: tuple[int, str, float] = (3, "yes", 7.5) # Python 3.9+
# For tuples of variable size, we use one type and ellipsis
x: tuple[int, ...] = (1, 2, 3) # Python 3.9+
# On Python 3.8 and earlier, the name of the collection type is
# capitalized, and the type is imported from the 'typing' module
from typing import List, Set, Dict, Tuple
x: List[int] = [1]
x: Set[int] = {6, 7}
x: Dict[str, float] = {"field": 2.0}
x: Tuple[int, str, float] = (3, "yes", 7.5)
x: Tuple[int, ...] = (1, 2, 3)
from typing import Union, Optional
# On Python 3.10+, use the | operator when something could be one of a few types
x: list[int | str] = [3, 5, "test", "fun"] # Python 3.10+
# On earlier versions, use Union
x: list[Union[int, str]] = [3, 5, "test", "fun"]
# Use Optional[X] for a value that could be None
# Optional[X] is the same as X | None or Union[X, None]
x: Optional[str] = "something" if some_condition() else None
if x is not None:
# Mypy understands x won't be None here because of the if-statement
print(x.upper())
# If you know a value can never be None due to some logic that mypy doesn't
# understand, use an assert
assert x is not None
print(x.upper())
Functions¶
from typing import Callable, Iterator, Union, Optional
# This is how you annotate a function definition
def stringify(num: int) -> str:
return str(num)
# And here's how you specify multiple arguments
def plus(num1: int, num2: int) -> int:
return num1 + num2
# If a function does not return a value, use None as the return type
# Default value for an argument goes after the type annotation
def show(value: str, excitement: int = 10) -> None:
print(value + "!" * excitement)
# Note that arguments without a type are dynamically typed (treated as Any)
# and that functions without any annotations are not checked
def untyped(x):
x.anything() + 1 + "string" # no errors
# This is how you annotate a callable (function) value
x: Callable[[int, float], float] = f
def register(callback: Callable[[str], int]) -> None: ...
# A generator function that yields ints is secretly just a function that
# returns an iterator of ints, so that's how we annotate it
def gen(n: int) -> Iterator[int]:
i = 0
while i < n:
yield i
i += 1
# You can of course split a function annotation over multiple lines
def send_email(address: Union[str, list[str]],
sender: str,
cc: Optional[list[str]],
bcc: Optional[list[str]],
subject: str = '',
body: Optional[list[str]] = None
) -> bool:
...
# Mypy understands positional-only and keyword-only arguments
# Positional-only arguments can also be marked by using a name starting with
# two underscores
def quux(x: int, /, *, y: int) -> None:
pass
quux(3, y=5) # Ok
quux(3, 5) # error: Too many positional arguments for "quux"
quux(x=3, y=5) # error: Unexpected keyword argument "x" for "quux"
# This says each positional arg and each keyword arg is a "str"
def call(self, *args: str, **kwargs: str) -> str:
reveal_type(args) # Revealed type is "tuple[str, ...]"
reveal_type(kwargs) # Revealed type is "dict[str, str]"
request = make_request(*args, **kwargs)
return self.do_api_query(request)
Classes¶
from typing import ClassVar
class BankAccount:
# The "__init__" method doesn't return anything, so it gets return
# type "None" just like any other method that doesn't return anything
def __init__(self, account_name: str, initial_balance: int = 0) -> None:
# mypy will infer the correct types for these instance variables
# based on the types of the parameters.
self.account_name = account_name
self.balance = initial_balance
# For instance methods, omit type for "self"
def deposit(self, amount: int) -> None:
self.balance += amount
def withdraw(self, amount: int) -> None:
self.balance -= amount
# User-defined classes are valid as types in annotations
account: BankAccount = BankAccount("Alice", 400)
def transfer(src: BankAccount, dst: BankAccount, amount: int) -> None:
src.withdraw(amount)
dst.deposit(amount)
# Functions that accept BankAccount also accept any subclass of BankAccount!
class AuditedBankAccount(BankAccount):
# You can optionally declare instance variables in the class body
audit_log: list[str]
def __init__(self, account_name: str, initial_balance: int = 0) -> None:
super().__init__(account_name, initial_balance)
self.audit_log: list[str] = []
def deposit(self, amount: int) -> None:
self.audit_log.append(f"Deposited {amount}")
self.balance += amount
def withdraw(self, amount: int) -> None:
self.audit_log.append(f"Withdrew {amount}")
self.balance -= amount
audited = AuditedBankAccount("Bob", 300)
transfer(audited, account, 100) # type checks!
# You can use the ClassVar annotation to declare a class variable
class Car:
seats: ClassVar[int] = 4
passengers: ClassVar[list[str]]
# If you want dynamic attributes on your class, have it
# override "__setattr__" or "__getattr__"
class A:
# This will allow assignment to any A.x, if x is the same type as "value"
# (use "value: Any" to allow arbitrary types)
def __setattr__(self, name: str, value: int) -> None: ...
# This will allow access to any A.x, if x is compatible with the return type
def __getattr__(self, name: str) -> int: ...
a = A()
a.foo = 42 # Works
a.bar = 'Ex-parrot' # Fails type checking
When you’re puzzled or when things are complicated¶
from typing import Union, Any, Optional, TYPE_CHECKING, cast
# To find out what type mypy infers for an expression anywhere in
# your program, wrap it in reveal_type(). Mypy will print an error
# message with the type; remove it again before running the code.
reveal_type(1) # Revealed type is "builtins.int"
# If you initialize a variable with an empty container or "None"
# you may have to help mypy a bit by providing an explicit type annotation
x: list[str] = []
x: Optional[str] = None
# Use Any if you don't know the type of something or it's too
# dynamic to write a type for
x: Any = mystery_function()
# Mypy will let you do anything with x!
x.whatever() * x["you"] + x("want") - any(x) and all(x) is super # no errors
# Use a "type: ignore" comment to suppress errors on a given line,
# when your code confuses mypy or runs into an outright bug in mypy.
# Good practice is to add a comment explaining the issue.
x = confusing_function() # type: ignore # confusing_function won't return None here because ...
# "cast" is a helper function that lets you override the inferred
# type of an expression. It's only for mypy -- there's no runtime check.
a = [4]
b = cast(list[int], a) # Passes fine
c = cast(list[str], a) # Passes fine despite being a lie (no runtime check)
reveal_type(c) # Revealed type is "builtins.list[builtins.str]"
print(c) # Still prints [4] ... the object is not changed or casted at runtime
# Use "TYPE_CHECKING" if you want to have code that mypy can see but will not
# be executed at runtime (or to have code that mypy can't see)
if TYPE_CHECKING:
import json
else:
import orjson as json # mypy is unaware of this
In some cases type annotations can cause issues at runtime, see Annotation issues at runtime for dealing with this.
See Silencing type errors for details on how to silence errors.
Standard “duck types”¶
In typical Python code, many functions that can take a list or a dict as an argument only need their argument to be somehow “list-like” or “dict-like”. A specific meaning of “list-like” or “dict-like” (or something-else-like) is called a “duck type”, and several duck types that are common in idiomatic Python are standardized.
from typing import Mapping, MutableMapping, Sequence, Iterable
# Use Iterable for generic iterables (anything usable in "for"),
# and Sequence where a sequence (supporting "len" and "__getitem__") is
# required
def f(ints: Iterable[int]) -> list[str]:
return [str(x) for x in ints]
f(range(1, 3))
# Mapping describes a dict-like object (with "__getitem__") that we won't
# mutate, and MutableMapping one (with "__setitem__") that we might
def f(my_mapping: Mapping[int, str]) -> list[int]:
my_mapping[5] = 'maybe' # mypy will complain about this line...
return list(my_mapping.keys())
f({3: 'yes', 4: 'no'})
def f(my_mapping: MutableMapping[int, str]) -> set[str]:
my_mapping[5] = 'maybe' # ...but mypy is OK with this.
return set(my_mapping.values())
f({3: 'yes', 4: 'no'})
import sys
from typing import IO
# Use IO[str] or IO[bytes] for functions that should accept or return
# objects that come from an open() call (note that IO does not
# distinguish between reading, writing or other modes)
def get_sys_IO(mode: str = 'w') -> IO[str]:
if mode == 'w':
return sys.stdout
elif mode == 'r':
return sys.stdin
else:
return sys.stdout
You can even make your own duck types using Protocols and structural subtyping.
Forward references¶
# You may want to reference a class before it is defined.
# This is known as a "forward reference".
def f(foo: A) -> int: # This will fail at runtime with 'A' is not defined
...
# However, if you add the following special import:
from __future__ import annotations
# It will work at runtime and type checking will succeed as long as there
# is a class of that name later on in the file
def f(foo: A) -> int: # Ok
...
# Another option is to just put the type in quotes
def f(foo: 'A') -> int: # Also ok
...
class A:
# This can also come up if you need to reference a class in a type
# annotation inside the definition of that class
@classmethod
def create(cls) -> A:
...
See Class name forward references for more details.
Decorators¶
Decorator functions can be expressed via generics. See Declaring decorators for more details.
from typing import Any, Callable, TypeVar
F = TypeVar('F', bound=Callable[..., Any])
def bare_decorator(func: F) -> F:
...
def decorator_args(url: str) -> Callable[[F], F]:
...
Coroutines and asyncio¶
See Typing async/await for the full detail on typing coroutines and asynchronous code.
import asyncio
# A coroutine is typed like a normal function
async def countdown(tag: str, count: int) -> str:
while count > 0:
print(f'T-minus {count} ({tag})')
await asyncio.sleep(0.1)
count -= 1
return "Blastoff!"
Using mypy with an existing codebase¶
This section explains how to get started using mypy with an existing, significant codebase that has little or no type annotations. If you are a beginner, you can skip this section.
Start small¶
If your codebase is large, pick a subset of your codebase (say, 5,000 to 50,000 lines) and get mypy to run successfully only on this subset at first, before adding annotations. This should be doable in a day or two. The sooner you get some form of mypy passing on your codebase, the sooner you benefit.
You’ll likely need to fix some mypy errors, either by inserting
annotations requested by mypy or by adding # type: ignore
comments to silence errors you don’t want to fix now.
We’ll mention some tips for getting mypy passing on your codebase in various sections below.
Run mypy consistently and prevent regressions¶
Make sure all developers on your codebase run mypy the same way.
One way to ensure this is adding a small script with your mypy
invocation to your codebase, or adding your mypy invocation to
existing tools you use to run tests, like tox.
Make sure everyone runs mypy with the same options. Checking a mypy configuration file into your codebase is the easiest way to do this.
Make sure everyone type checks the same set of files. See Specifying code to be checked for details.
Make sure everyone runs mypy with the same version of mypy, for instance by pinning mypy with the rest of your dev requirements.
In particular, you’ll want to make sure to run mypy as part of your Continuous Integration (CI) system as soon as possible. This will prevent new type errors from being introduced into your codebase.
A simple CI script could look something like this:
python3 -m pip install mypy==1.8
# Run your standardised mypy invocation, e.g.
mypy my_project
# This could also look like `scripts/run_mypy.sh`, `tox run -e mypy`, `make mypy`, etc
Ignoring errors from certain modules¶
By default mypy will follow imports in your code and try to check everything. This means even if you only pass in a few files to mypy, it may still process a large number of imported files. This could potentially result in lots of errors you don’t want to deal with at the moment.
One way to deal with this is to ignore errors in modules you aren’t yet ready to
type check. The ignore_errors option is useful for this, for instance,
if you aren’t yet ready to deal with errors from package_to_fix_later:
[mypy-package_to_fix_later.*]
ignore_errors = True
You could even invert this, by setting ignore_errors = True in your global
config section and only enabling error reporting with ignore_errors = False
for the set of modules you are ready to type check.
The per-module configuration that mypy’s configuration file allows can be extremely useful. Many configuration options can be enabled or disabled only for specific modules. In particular, you can also enable or disable various error codes on a per-module basis, see Error codes.
Prioritise annotating widely imported modules¶
Most projects have some widely imported modules, such as utilities or model classes. It’s a good idea to annotate these pretty early on, since this allows code using these modules to be type checked more effectively.
Mypy is designed to support gradual typing, i.e. letting you add annotations at your own pace, so it’s okay to leave some of these modules unannotated. The more you annotate, the more useful mypy will be, but even a little annotation coverage is useful.
Write annotations as you go¶
Consider adding something like these in your code style conventions:
Developers should add annotations for any new code.
It’s also encouraged to write annotations when you modify existing code.
This way you’ll gradually increase annotation coverage in your codebase without much effort.
Automate annotation of legacy code¶
There are tools for automatically adding draft annotations based on simple static analysis or on type profiles collected at runtime. Tools include MonkeyType, autotyping and PyAnnotate.
A simple approach is to collect types from test runs. This may work well if your test coverage is good (and if your tests aren’t very slow).
Another approach is to enable type collection for a small, random fraction of production network requests. This clearly requires more care, as type collection could impact the reliability or the performance of your service.
Introduce stricter options¶
Mypy is very configurable. Once you get started with static typing, you may want
to explore the various strictness options mypy provides to catch more bugs. For
example, you can ask mypy to require annotations for all functions in certain
modules to avoid accidentally introducing code that won’t be type checked using
disallow_untyped_defs. Refer to The mypy configuration file for the details.
An excellent goal to aim for is to have your codebase pass when run against mypy --strict.
This basically ensures that you will never have a type related error without an explicit
circumvention somewhere (such as a # type: ignore comment).
The following config is equivalent to --strict (as of mypy 1.0):
# Start off with these
warn_unused_configs = True
warn_redundant_casts = True
warn_unused_ignores = True
# Getting these passing should be easy
strict_equality = True
strict_concatenate = True
# Strongly recommend enabling this one as soon as you can
check_untyped_defs = True
# These shouldn't be too much additional work, but may be tricky to
# get passing if you use a lot of untyped libraries
disallow_subclassing_any = True
disallow_untyped_decorators = True
disallow_any_generics = True
# These next few are various gradations of forcing use of type annotations
disallow_untyped_calls = True
disallow_incomplete_defs = True
disallow_untyped_defs = True
# This one isn't too hard to get passing, but return on investment is lower
no_implicit_reexport = True
# This one can be tricky to get passing if you use a lot of untyped libraries
warn_return_any = True
Note that you can also start with --strict and subtract, for instance:
strict = True
warn_return_any = False
Remember that many of these options can be enabled on a per-module basis. For instance,
you may want to enable disallow_untyped_defs for modules which you’ve completed
annotations for, in order to prevent new code from being added without annotations.
And if you want, it doesn’t stop at --strict. Mypy has additional checks
that are not part of --strict that can be useful. See the complete
The mypy command line reference and Error codes for optional checks.
Speed up mypy runs¶
You can use mypy daemon to get much faster incremental mypy runs. The larger your project is, the more useful this will be. If your project has at least 100,000 lines of code or so, you may also want to set up remote caching for further speedups.
Built-in types¶
This chapter introduces some commonly used built-in types. We will cover many other kinds of types later.
Simple types¶
Here are examples of some common built-in types:
Type |
Description |
|---|---|
|
integer |
|
floating point number |
|
boolean value (subclass of |
|
text, sequence of unicode codepoints |
|
8-bit string, sequence of byte values |
|
an arbitrary object ( |
All built-in classes can be used as types.
Any type¶
If you can’t find a good type for some value, you can always fall back
to Any:
Type |
Description |
|---|---|
|
dynamically typed value with an arbitrary type |
The type Any is defined in the typing module.
See Dynamically typed code for more details.
Generic types¶
In Python 3.9 and later, built-in collection type objects support indexing:
Type |
Description |
|---|---|
|
list of |
|
tuple of two |
|
tuple of an arbitrary number of |
|
dictionary from |
|
iterable object containing ints |
|
sequence of booleans (read-only) |
|
mapping from |
|
type object of |
The type dict is a generic class, signified by type arguments within
[...]. For example, dict[int, str] is a dictionary from integers to
strings and dict[Any, Any] is a dictionary of dynamically typed
(arbitrary) values and keys. list is another generic class.
Iterable, Sequence, and Mapping are generic types that correspond to
Python protocols. For example, a str object or a list[str] object is
valid when Iterable[str] or Sequence[str] is expected.
You can import them from collections.abc instead of importing from
typing in Python 3.9.
See Using generic builtins for more details, including how you can use these in annotations also in Python 3.7 and 3.8.
These legacy types defined in typing are needed if you need to support
Python 3.8 and earlier:
Type |
Description |
|---|---|
|
list of |
|
tuple of two |
|
tuple of an arbitrary number of |
|
dictionary from |
|
iterable object containing ints |
|
sequence of booleans (read-only) |
|
mapping from |
|
type object of |
List is an alias for the built-in type list that supports
indexing (and similarly for dict/Dict and
tuple/Tuple).
Note that even though Iterable, Sequence and Mapping look
similar to abstract base classes defined in collections.abc
(formerly collections), they are not identical, since the latter
don’t support indexing prior to Python 3.9.
Type inference and type annotations¶
Type inference¶
For most variables, if you do not explicitly specify its type, mypy will infer the correct type based on what is initially assigned to the variable.
# Mypy will infer the type of these variables, despite no annotations
i = 1
reveal_type(i) # Revealed type is "builtins.int"
l = [1, 2]
reveal_type(l) # Revealed type is "builtins.list[builtins.int]"
Note
Note that mypy will not use type inference in dynamically typed functions
(those without a function type annotation) — every local variable type
defaults to Any in such functions. For more details, see Dynamically typed code.
def untyped_function():
i = 1
reveal_type(i) # Revealed type is "Any"
# 'reveal_type' always outputs 'Any' in unchecked functions
Explicit types for variables¶
You can override the inferred type of a variable by using a variable type annotation:
from typing import Union
x: Union[int, str] = 1
Without the type annotation, the type of x would be just int. We
use an annotation to give it a more general type Union[int, str] (this
type means that the value can be either an int or a str).
The best way to think about this is that the type annotation sets the type of the variable, not the type of the expression. For instance, mypy will complain about the following code:
x: Union[int, str] = 1.1 # error: Incompatible types in assignment
# (expression has type "float", variable has type "Union[int, str]")
Note
To explicitly override the type of an expression you can use
cast(<type>, <expression>).
See Casts for details.
Note that you can explicitly declare the type of a variable without giving it an initial value:
# We only unpack two values, so there's no right-hand side value
# for mypy to infer the type of "cs" from:
a, b, *cs = 1, 2 # error: Need type annotation for "cs"
rs: list[int] # no assignment!
p, q, *rs = 1, 2 # OK
Explicit types for collections¶
The type checker cannot always infer the type of a list or a dictionary. This often arises when creating an empty list or dictionary and assigning it to a new variable that doesn’t have an explicit variable type. Here is an example where mypy can’t infer the type without some help:
l = [] # Error: Need type annotation for "l"
In these cases you can give the type explicitly using a type annotation:
l: list[int] = [] # Create empty list of int
d: dict[str, int] = {} # Create empty dictionary (str -> int)
Compatibility of container types¶
A quick note: container types can sometimes be unintuitive. We’ll discuss this
more in Invariance vs covariance. For example, the following program generates a mypy error,
because mypy treats list[int] as incompatible with list[object]:
def f(l: list[object], k: list[int]) -> None:
l = k # error: Incompatible types in assignment
The reason why the above assignment is disallowed is that allowing the
assignment could result in non-int values stored in a list of int:
def f(l: list[object], k: list[int]) -> None:
l = k
l.append('x')
print(k[-1]) # Ouch; a string in list[int]
Other container types like dict and set behave similarly.
You can still run the above program; it prints x. This illustrates the fact
that static types do not affect the runtime behavior of programs. You can run
programs with type check failures, which is often very handy when performing a
large refactoring. Thus you can always ‘work around’ the type system, and it
doesn’t really limit what you can do in your program.
Context in type inference¶
Type inference is bidirectional and takes context into account.
Mypy will take into account the type of the variable on the left-hand side of an assignment when inferring the type of the expression on the right-hand side. For example, the following will type check:
def f(l: list[object]) -> None:
l = [1, 2] # Infer type list[object] for [1, 2], not list[int]
The value expression [1, 2] is type checked with the additional
context that it is being assigned to a variable of type list[object].
This is used to infer the type of the expression as list[object].
Declared argument types are also used for type context. In this program
mypy knows that the empty list [] should have type list[int] based
on the declared type of arg in foo:
def foo(arg: list[int]) -> None:
print('Items:', ''.join(str(a) for a in arg))
foo([]) # OK
However, context only works within a single statement. Here mypy requires an annotation for the empty list, since the context would only be available in the following statement:
def foo(arg: list[int]) -> None:
print('Items:', ', '.join(arg))
a = [] # Error: Need type annotation for "a"
foo(a)
Working around the issue is easy by adding a type annotation:
...
a: list[int] = [] # OK
foo(a)
Silencing type errors¶
You might want to disable type checking on specific lines, or within specific
files in your codebase. To do that, you can use a # type: ignore comment.
For example, say in its latest update, the web framework you use can now take an
integer argument to run(), which starts it on localhost on that port.
Like so:
# Starting app on http://localhost:8000
app.run(8000)
However, the devs forgot to update their type annotations for
run, so mypy still thinks run only expects str types.
This would give you the following error:
error: Argument 1 to "run" of "A" has incompatible type "int"; expected "str"
If you cannot directly fix the web framework yourself, you can temporarily
disable type checking on that line, by adding a # type: ignore:
# Starting app on http://localhost:8000
app.run(8000) # type: ignore
This will suppress any mypy errors that would have raised on that specific line.
You should probably add some more information on the # type: ignore comment,
to explain why the ignore was added in the first place. This could be a link to
an issue on the repository responsible for the type stubs, or it could be a
short explanation of the bug. To do that, use this format:
# Starting app on http://localhost:8000
app.run(8000) # type: ignore # `run()` in v2.0 accepts an `int`, as a port
Type ignore error codes¶
By default, mypy displays an error code for each error:
error: "str" has no attribute "trim" [attr-defined]
It is possible to add a specific error-code in your ignore comment (e.g.
# type: ignore[attr-defined]) to clarify what’s being silenced. You can
find more information about error codes here.
Other ways to silence errors¶
You can get mypy to silence errors about a specific variable by dynamically
typing it with Any. See Dynamically typed code for more information.
from typing import Any
def f(x: Any, y: str) -> None:
x = 'hello'
x += 1 # OK
You can ignore all mypy errors in a file by adding a
# mypy: ignore-errors at the top of the file:
# mypy: ignore-errors
# This is a test file, skipping type checking in it.
import unittest
...
You can also specify per-module configuration options in your The mypy configuration file. For example:
# Don't report errors in the 'package_to_fix_later' package
[mypy-package_to_fix_later.*]
ignore_errors = True
# Disable specific error codes in the 'tests' package
# Also don't require type annotations
[mypy-tests.*]
disable_error_code = var-annotated, has-type
allow_untyped_defs = True
# Silence import errors from the 'library_missing_types' package
[mypy-library_missing_types.*]
ignore_missing_imports = True
Finally, adding a @typing.no_type_check decorator to a class, method or
function causes mypy to avoid type checking that class, method or function
and to treat it as not having any type annotations.
@typing.no_type_check
def foo() -> str:
return 12345 # No error!
Kinds of types¶
We’ve mostly restricted ourselves to built-in types until now. This section introduces several additional kinds of types. You are likely to need at least some of them to type check any non-trivial programs.
Class types¶
Every class is also a valid type. Any instance of a subclass is also
compatible with all superclasses – it follows that every value is compatible
with the object type (and incidentally also the Any type, discussed
below). Mypy analyzes the bodies of classes to determine which methods and
attributes are available in instances. This example uses subclassing:
class A:
def f(self) -> int: # Type of self inferred (A)
return 2
class B(A):
def f(self) -> int:
return 3
def g(self) -> int:
return 4
def foo(a: A) -> None:
print(a.f()) # 3
a.g() # Error: "A" has no attribute "g"
foo(B()) # OK (B is a subclass of A)
The Any type¶
A value with the Any type is dynamically typed. Mypy doesn’t know
anything about the possible runtime types of such value. Any
operations are permitted on the value, and the operations are only checked
at runtime. You can use Any as an “escape hatch” when you can’t use
a more precise type for some reason.
Any is compatible with every other type, and vice versa. You can freely
assign a value of type Any to a variable with a more precise type:
a: Any = None
s: str = ''
a = 2 # OK (assign "int" to "Any")
s = a # OK (assign "Any" to "str")
Declared (and inferred) types are ignored (or erased) at runtime. They are
basically treated as comments, and thus the above code does not
generate a runtime error, even though s gets an int value when
the program is run, while the declared type of s is actually
str! You need to be careful with Any types, since they let you
lie to mypy, and this could easily hide bugs.
If you do not define a function return value or argument types, these
default to Any:
def show_heading(s) -> None:
print('=== ' + s + ' ===') # No static type checking, as s has type Any
show_heading(1) # OK (runtime error only; mypy won't generate an error)
You should give a statically typed function an explicit None
return type even if it doesn’t return a value, as this lets mypy catch
additional type errors:
def wait(t: float): # Implicit Any return value
print('Waiting...')
time.sleep(t)
if wait(2) > 1: # Mypy doesn't catch this error!
...
If we had used an explicit None return type, mypy would have caught
the error:
def wait(t: float) -> None:
print('Waiting...')
time.sleep(t)
if wait(2) > 1: # Error: can't compare None and int
...
The Any type is discussed in more detail in section Dynamically typed code.
Note
A function without any types in the signature is dynamically
typed. The body of a dynamically typed function is not checked
statically, and local variables have implicit Any types.
This makes it easier to migrate legacy Python code to mypy, as
mypy won’t complain about dynamically typed functions.
Tuple types¶
The type tuple[T1, ..., Tn] represents a tuple with the item types T1, …, Tn:
# Use `typing.Tuple` in Python 3.8 and earlier
def f(t: tuple[int, str]) -> None:
t = 1, 'foo' # OK
t = 'foo', 1 # Type check error
A tuple type of this kind has exactly a specific number of items (2 in
the above example). Tuples can also be used as immutable,
varying-length sequences. You can use the type tuple[T, ...] (with
a literal ... – it’s part of the syntax) for this
purpose. Example:
def print_squared(t: tuple[int, ...]) -> None:
for n in t:
print(n, n ** 2)
print_squared(()) # OK
print_squared((1, 3, 5)) # OK
print_squared([1, 2]) # Error: only a tuple is valid
Note
Usually it’s a better idea to use Sequence[T] instead of tuple[T, ...], as
Sequence is also compatible with lists and other non-tuple sequences.
Note
tuple[...] is valid as a base class in Python 3.6 and later, and
always in stub files. In earlier Python versions you can sometimes work around this
limitation by using a named tuple as a base class (see section Named tuples).
Callable types (and lambdas)¶
You can pass around function objects and bound methods in statically
typed code. The type of a function that accepts arguments A1, …, An
and returns Rt is Callable[[A1, ..., An], Rt]. Example:
from typing import Callable
def twice(i: int, next: Callable[[int], int]) -> int:
return next(next(i))
def add(i: int) -> int:
return i + 1
print(twice(3, add)) # 5
You can only have positional arguments, and only ones without default
values, in callable types. These cover the vast majority of uses of
callable types, but sometimes this isn’t quite enough. Mypy recognizes
a special form Callable[..., T] (with a literal ...) which can
be used in less typical cases. It is compatible with arbitrary
callable objects that return a type compatible with T, independent
of the number, types or kinds of arguments. Mypy lets you call such
callable values with arbitrary arguments, without any checking – in
this respect they are treated similar to a (*args: Any, **kwargs:
Any) function signature. Example:
from typing import Callable
def arbitrary_call(f: Callable[..., int]) -> int:
return f('x') + f(y=2) # OK
arbitrary_call(ord) # No static error, but fails at runtime
arbitrary_call(open) # Error: does not return an int
arbitrary_call(1) # Error: 'int' is not callable
In situations where more precise or complex types of callbacks are necessary one can use flexible callback protocols. Lambdas are also supported. The lambda argument and return value types cannot be given explicitly; they are always inferred based on context using bidirectional type inference:
l = map(lambda x: x + 1, [1, 2, 3]) # Infer x as int and l as list[int]
If you want to give the argument or return value types explicitly, use an ordinary, perhaps nested function definition.
Callables can also be used against type objects, matching their
__init__ or __new__ signature:
from typing import Callable
class C:
def __init__(self, app: str) -> None:
pass
CallableType = Callable[[str], C]
def class_or_callable(arg: CallableType) -> None:
inst = arg("my_app")
reveal_type(inst) # Revealed type is "C"
This is useful if you want arg to be either a Callable returning an
instance of C or the type of C itself. This also works with
callback protocols.
Union types¶
Python functions often accept values of two or more different types. You can use overloading to represent this, but union types are often more convenient.
Use the Union[T1, ..., Tn] type constructor to construct a union
type. For example, if an argument has type Union[int, str], both
integers and strings are valid argument values.
You can use an isinstance() check to narrow down a union type to a
more specific type:
from typing import Union
def f(x: Union[int, str]) -> None:
x + 1 # Error: str + int is not valid
if isinstance(x, int):
# Here type of x is int.
x + 1 # OK
else:
# Here type of x is str.
x + 'a' # OK
f(1) # OK
f('x') # OK
f(1.1) # Error
Note
Operations are valid for union types only if they are valid for every
union item. This is why it’s often necessary to use an isinstance()
check to first narrow down a union type to a non-union type. This also
means that it’s recommended to avoid union types as function return types,
since the caller may have to use isinstance() before doing anything
interesting with the value.
Optional types and the None type¶
You can use the Optional type modifier to define a type variant
that allows None, such as Optional[int] (Optional[X] is
the preferred shorthand for Union[X, None]):
from typing import Optional
def strlen(s: str) -> Optional[int]:
if not s:
return None # OK
return len(s)
def strlen_invalid(s: str) -> int:
if not s:
return None # Error: None not compatible with int
return len(s)
Most operations will not be allowed on unguarded None or Optional
values:
def my_inc(x: Optional[int]) -> int:
return x + 1 # Error: Cannot add None and int
Instead, an explicit None check is required. Mypy has
powerful type inference that lets you use regular Python
idioms to guard against None values. For example, mypy
recognizes is None checks:
def my_inc(x: Optional[int]) -> int:
if x is None:
return 0
else:
# The inferred type of x is just int here.
return x + 1
Mypy will infer the type of x to be int in the else block due to the
check against None in the if condition.
Other supported checks for guarding against a None value include
if x is not None, if x and if not x. Additionally, mypy understands
None checks within logical expressions:
def concat(x: Optional[str], y: Optional[str]) -> Optional[str]:
if x is not None and y is not None:
# Both x and y are not None here
return x + y
else:
return None
Sometimes mypy doesn’t realize that a value is never None. This notably
happens when a class instance can exist in a partially defined state,
where some attribute is initialized to None during object
construction, but a method assumes that the attribute is no longer None. Mypy
will complain about the possible None value. You can use
assert x is not None to work around this in the method:
class Resource:
path: Optional[str] = None
def initialize(self, path: str) -> None:
self.path = path
def read(self) -> str:
# We require that the object has been initialized.
assert self.path is not None
with open(self.path) as f: # OK
return f.read()
r = Resource()
r.initialize('/foo/bar')
r.read()
When initializing a variable as None, None is usually an
empty place-holder value, and the actual value has a different type.
This is why you need to annotate an attribute in cases like the class
Resource above:
class Resource:
path: Optional[str] = None
...
This also works for attributes defined within methods:
class Counter:
def __init__(self) -> None:
self.count: Optional[int] = None
This is not a problem when using variable annotations, since no initial value is needed:
class Container:
items: list[str] # No initial value
Mypy generally uses the first assignment to a variable to
infer the type of the variable. However, if you assign both a None
value and a non-None value in the same scope, mypy can usually do
the right thing without an annotation:
def f(i: int) -> None:
n = None # Inferred type Optional[int] because of the assignment below
if i > 0:
n = i
...
Sometimes you may get the error “Cannot determine type of <something>”. In this
case you should add an explicit Optional[...] annotation (or type comment).
Note
None is a type with only one value, None. None is also used
as the return type for functions that don’t return a value, i.e. functions
that implicitly return None.
Note
The Python interpreter internally uses the name NoneType for
the type of None, but None is always used in type
annotations. The latter is shorter and reads better. (NoneType
is available as types.NoneType on Python 3.10+, but is
not exposed at all on earlier versions of Python.)
Note
Optional[...] does not mean a function argument with a default value.
It simply means that None is a valid value for the argument. This is
a common confusion because None is a common default value for arguments.
X | Y syntax for Unions¶
PEP 604 introduced an alternative way for spelling union types. In Python
3.10 and later, you can write Union[int, str] as int | str. It is
possible to use this syntax in versions of Python where it isn’t supported by
the runtime with some limitations (see Annotation issues at runtime).
t1: int | str # equivalent to Union[int, str]
t2: int | None # equivalent to Optional[int]
Type aliases¶
In certain situations, type names may end up being long and painful to type:
def f() -> Union[list[dict[tuple[int, str], set[int]]], tuple[str, list[str]]]:
...
When cases like this arise, you can define a type alias by simply assigning the type to a variable:
AliasType = Union[list[dict[tuple[int, str], set[int]]], tuple[str, list[str]]]
# Now we can use AliasType in place of the full name:
def f() -> AliasType:
...
Note
A type alias does not create a new type. It’s just a shorthand notation for another type – it’s equivalent to the target type except for generic aliases.
Since Mypy 0.930 you can also use explicit type aliases, which were introduced in PEP 613.
There can be confusion about exactly when an assignment defines an implicit type alias – for example, when the alias contains forward references, invalid types, or violates some other restrictions on type alias declarations. Because the distinction between an unannotated variable and a type alias is implicit, ambiguous or incorrect type alias declarations default to defining a normal variable instead of a type alias.
Explicit type aliases are unambiguous and can also improve readability by making the intent clear:
from typing import TypeAlias # "from typing_extensions" in Python 3.9 and earlier
AliasType: TypeAlias = Union[list[dict[tuple[int, str], set[int]]], tuple[str, list[str]]]
Named tuples¶
Mypy recognizes named tuples and can type check code that defines or uses them. In this example, we can detect code trying to access a missing attribute:
Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
p = Point(x=1, y=2)
print(p.z) # Error: Point has no attribute 'z'
If you use namedtuple to define your named tuple, all the items
are assumed to have Any types. That is, mypy doesn’t know anything
about item types. You can use NamedTuple to also define
item types:
from typing import NamedTuple
Point = NamedTuple('Point', [('x', int),
('y', int)])
p = Point(x=1, y='x') # Argument has incompatible type "str"; expected "int"
Python 3.6 introduced an alternative, class-based syntax for named tuples with types:
from typing import NamedTuple
class Point(NamedTuple):
x: int
y: int
p = Point(x=1, y='x') # Argument has incompatible type "str"; expected "int"
Note
You can use the raw NamedTuple “pseudo-class” in type annotations
if any NamedTuple object is valid.
For example, it can be useful for deserialization:
def deserialize_named_tuple(arg: NamedTuple) -> Dict[str, Any]:
return arg._asdict()
Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
Person = NamedTuple('Person', [('name', str), ('age', int)])
deserialize_named_tuple(Point(x=1, y=2)) # ok
deserialize_named_tuple(Person(name='Nikita', age=18)) # ok
# Error: Argument 1 to "deserialize_named_tuple" has incompatible type
# "Tuple[int, int]"; expected "NamedTuple"
deserialize_named_tuple((1, 2))
Note that this behavior is highly experimental, non-standard, and may not be supported by other type checkers and IDEs.
The type of class objects¶
(Freely after PEP 484: The type of class objects.)
Sometimes you want to talk about class objects that inherit from a
given class. This can be spelled as type[C] (or, on Python 3.8 and lower,
typing.Type[C]) where C is a
class. In other words, when C is the name of a class, using C
to annotate an argument declares that the argument is an instance of
C (or of a subclass of C), but using type[C] as an
argument annotation declares that the argument is a class object
deriving from C (or C itself).
For example, assume the following classes:
class User:
# Defines fields like name, email
class BasicUser(User):
def upgrade(self):
"""Upgrade to Pro"""
class ProUser(User):
def pay(self):
"""Pay bill"""
Note that ProUser doesn’t inherit from BasicUser.
Here’s a function that creates an instance of one of these classes if you pass it the right class object:
def new_user(user_class):
user = user_class()
# (Here we could write the user object to a database)
return user
How would we annotate this function? Without the ability to parameterize type, the best we
could do would be:
def new_user(user_class: type) -> User:
# Same implementation as before
This seems reasonable, except that in the following example, mypy
doesn’t see that the buyer variable has type ProUser:
buyer = new_user(ProUser)
buyer.pay() # Rejected, not a method on User
However, using the type[C] syntax and a type variable with an upper bound (see
Type variables with upper bounds) we can do better:
U = TypeVar('U', bound=User)
def new_user(user_class: type[U]) -> U:
# Same implementation as before
Now mypy will infer the correct type of the result when we call
new_user() with a specific subclass of User:
beginner = new_user(BasicUser) # Inferred type is BasicUser
beginner.upgrade() # OK
Note
The value corresponding to type[C] must be an actual class
object that’s a subtype of C. Its constructor must be
compatible with the constructor of C. If C is a type
variable, its upper bound must be a class object.
For more details about type[] and typing.Type[], see PEP 484: The type of
class objects.
Generators¶
A basic generator that only yields values can be succinctly annotated as having a return
type of either Iterator[YieldType] or Iterable[YieldType]. For example:
def squares(n: int) -> Iterator[int]:
for i in range(n):
yield i * i
A good rule of thumb is to annotate functions with the most specific return
type possible. However, you should also take care to avoid leaking implementation
details into a function’s public API. In keeping with these two principles, prefer
Iterator[YieldType] over
Iterable[YieldType] as the return-type annotation for a
generator function, as it lets mypy know that users are able to call next() on
the object returned by the function. Nonetheless, bear in mind that Iterable may
sometimes be the better option, if you consider it an implementation detail that
next() can be called on the object returned by your function.
If you want your generator to accept values via the send() method or return
a value, on the other hand, you should use the
Generator[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType] generic type instead of
either Iterator or Iterable. For example:
def echo_round() -> Generator[int, float, str]:
sent = yield 0
while sent >= 0:
sent = yield round(sent)
return 'Done'
Note that unlike many other generics in the typing module, the SendType of
Generator behaves contravariantly, not covariantly or invariantly.
If you do not plan on receiving or returning values, then set the SendType
or ReturnType to None, as appropriate. For example, we could have
annotated the first example as the following:
def squares(n: int) -> Generator[int, None, None]:
for i in range(n):
yield i * i
This is slightly different from using Iterator[int] or Iterable[int],
since generators have close(), send(), and throw() methods that
generic iterators and iterables don’t. If you plan to call these methods on the returned
generator, use the Generator type instead of Iterator or Iterable.
Class basics¶
This section will help get you started annotating your
classes. Built-in classes such as int also follow these same
rules.
Instance and class attributes¶
The mypy type checker detects if you are trying to access a missing attribute, which is a very common programming error. For this to work correctly, instance and class attributes must be defined or initialized within the class. Mypy infers the types of attributes:
class A:
def __init__(self, x: int) -> None:
self.x = x # Aha, attribute 'x' of type 'int'
a = A(1)
a.x = 2 # OK!
a.y = 3 # Error: "A" has no attribute "y"
This is a bit like each class having an implicitly defined
__slots__ attribute. This is only enforced during type
checking and not when your program is running.
You can declare types of variables in the class body explicitly using a type annotation:
class A:
x: list[int] # Declare attribute 'x' of type list[int]
a = A()
a.x = [1] # OK
As in Python generally, a variable defined in the class body can be used
as a class or an instance variable. (As discussed in the next section, you
can override this with a ClassVar annotation.)
Similarly, you can give explicit types to instance variables defined in a method:
class A:
def __init__(self) -> None:
self.x: list[int] = []
def f(self) -> None:
self.y: Any = 0
You can only define an instance variable within a method if you assign
to it explicitly using self:
class A:
def __init__(self) -> None:
self.y = 1 # Define 'y'
a = self
a.x = 1 # Error: 'x' not defined
Annotating __init__ methods¶
The __init__ method is somewhat special – it doesn’t return a
value. This is best expressed as -> None. However, since many feel
this is redundant, it is allowed to omit the return type declaration
on __init__ methods if at least one argument is annotated. For
example, in the following classes __init__ is considered fully
annotated:
class C1:
def __init__(self) -> None:
self.var = 42
class C2:
def __init__(self, arg: int):
self.var = arg
However, if __init__ has no annotated arguments and no return type
annotation, it is considered an untyped method:
class C3:
def __init__(self):
# This body is not type checked
self.var = 42 + 'abc'
Class attribute annotations¶
You can use a ClassVar[t] annotation to explicitly declare that a
particular attribute should not be set on instances:
from typing import ClassVar
class A:
x: ClassVar[int] = 0 # Class variable only
A.x += 1 # OK
a = A()
a.x = 1 # Error: Cannot assign to class variable "x" via instance
print(a.x) # OK -- can be read through an instance
It’s not necessary to annotate all class variables using
ClassVar. An attribute without the ClassVar annotation can
still be used as a class variable. However, mypy won’t prevent it from
being used as an instance variable, as discussed previously:
class A:
x = 0 # Can be used as a class or instance variable
A.x += 1 # OK
a = A()
a.x = 1 # Also OK
Note that ClassVar is not a class, and you can’t use it with
isinstance() or issubclass(). It does not change Python
runtime behavior – it’s only for type checkers such as mypy (and
also helpful for human readers).
You can also omit the square brackets and the variable type in
a ClassVar annotation, but this might not do what you’d expect:
class A:
y: ClassVar = 0 # Type implicitly Any!
In this case the type of the attribute will be implicitly Any.
This behavior will change in the future, since it’s surprising.
An explicit ClassVar may be particularly handy to distinguish
between class and instance variables with callable types. For example:
from typing import Callable, ClassVar
class A:
foo: Callable[[int], None]
bar: ClassVar[Callable[[A, int], None]]
bad: Callable[[A], None]
A().foo(42) # OK
A().bar(42) # OK
A().bad() # Error: Too few arguments
Note
A ClassVar type parameter cannot include type variables:
ClassVar[T] and ClassVar[list[T]]
are both invalid if T is a type variable (see Defining generic classes
for more about type variables).
Overriding statically typed methods¶
When overriding a statically typed method, mypy checks that the override has a compatible signature:
class Base:
def f(self, x: int) -> None:
...
class Derived1(Base):
def f(self, x: str) -> None: # Error: type of 'x' incompatible
...
class Derived2(Base):
def f(self, x: int, y: int) -> None: # Error: too many arguments
...
class Derived3(Base):
def f(self, x: int) -> None: # OK
...
class Derived4(Base):
def f(self, x: float) -> None: # OK: mypy treats int as a subtype of float
...
class Derived5(Base):
def f(self, x: int, y: int = 0) -> None: # OK: accepts more than the base
... # class method
Note
You can also vary return types covariantly in overriding. For
example, you could override the return type Iterable[int] with a
subtype such as list[int]. Similarly, you can vary argument types
contravariantly – subclasses can have more general argument types.
In order to ensure that your code remains correct when renaming methods,
it can be helpful to explicitly mark a method as overriding a base
method. This can be done with the @override decorator. @override
can be imported from typing starting with Python 3.12 or from
typing_extensions for use with older Python versions. If the base
method is then renamed while the overriding method is not, mypy will
show an error:
from typing import override
class Base:
def f(self, x: int) -> None:
...
def g_renamed(self, y: str) -> None:
...
class Derived1(Base):
@override
def f(self, x: int) -> None: # OK
...
@override
def g(self, y: str) -> None: # Error: no corresponding base method found
...
Note
Use –enable-error-code explicit-override to require
that method overrides use the @override decorator. Emit an error if it is missing.
You can also override a statically typed method with a dynamically typed one. This allows dynamically typed code to override methods defined in library classes without worrying about their type signatures.
As always, relying on dynamically typed code can be unsafe. There is no runtime enforcement that the method override returns a value that is compatible with the original return type, since annotations have no effect at runtime:
class Base:
def inc(self, x: int) -> int:
return x + 1
class Derived(Base):
def inc(self, x): # Override, dynamically typed
return 'hello' # Incompatible with 'Base', but no mypy error
Abstract base classes and multiple inheritance¶
Mypy supports Python abstract base classes (ABCs). Abstract classes
have at least one abstract method or property that must be implemented
by any concrete (non-abstract) subclass. You can define abstract base
classes using the abc.ABCMeta metaclass and the @abc.abstractmethod
function decorator. Example:
from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod
class Animal(metaclass=ABCMeta):
@abstractmethod
def eat(self, food: str) -> None: pass
@property
@abstractmethod
def can_walk(self) -> bool: pass
class Cat(Animal):
def eat(self, food: str) -> None:
... # Body omitted
@property
def can_walk(self) -> bool:
return True
x = Animal() # Error: 'Animal' is abstract due to 'eat' and 'can_walk'
y = Cat() # OK
Note that mypy performs checking for unimplemented abstract methods
even if you omit the ABCMeta metaclass. This can be useful if the
metaclass would cause runtime metaclass conflicts.
Since you can’t create instances of ABCs, they are most commonly used in
type annotations. For example, this method accepts arbitrary iterables
containing arbitrary animals (instances of concrete Animal
subclasses):
def feed_all(animals: Iterable[Animal], food: str) -> None:
for animal in animals:
animal.eat(food)
There is one important peculiarity about how ABCs work in Python –
whether a particular class is abstract or not is somewhat implicit.
In the example below, Derived is treated as an abstract base class
since Derived inherits an abstract f method from Base and
doesn’t explicitly implement it. The definition of Derived
generates no errors from mypy, since it’s a valid ABC:
from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod
class Base(metaclass=ABCMeta):
@abstractmethod
def f(self, x: int) -> None: pass
class Derived(Base): # No error -- Derived is implicitly abstract
def g(self) -> None:
...
Attempting to create an instance of Derived will be rejected,
however:
d = Derived() # Error: 'Derived' is abstract
Note
It’s a common error to forget to implement an abstract method. As shown above, the class definition will not generate an error in this case, but any attempt to construct an instance will be flagged as an error.
Mypy allows you to omit the body for an abstract method, but if you do so,
it is unsafe to call such method via super(). For example:
from abc import abstractmethod
class Base:
@abstractmethod
def foo(self) -> int: pass
@abstractmethod
def bar(self) -> int:
return 0
class Sub(Base):
def foo(self) -> int:
return super().foo() + 1 # error: Call to abstract method "foo" of "Base"
# with trivial body via super() is unsafe
@abstractmethod
def bar(self) -> int:
return super().bar() + 1 # This is OK however.
A class can inherit any number of classes, both abstract and concrete. As with normal overrides, a dynamically typed method can override or implement a statically typed method defined in any base class, including an abstract method defined in an abstract base class.
You can implement an abstract property using either a normal property or an instance variable.
Slots¶
When a class has explicitly defined __slots__,
mypy will check that all attributes assigned to are members of __slots__:
class Album:
__slots__ = ('name', 'year')
def __init__(self, name: str, year: int) -> None:
self.name = name
self.year = year
# Error: Trying to assign name "released" that is not in "__slots__" of type "Album"
self.released = True
my_album = Album('Songs about Python', 2021)
Mypy will only check attribute assignments against __slots__ when
the following conditions hold:
All base classes (except builtin ones) must have explicit
__slots__defined (this mirrors Python semantics).__slots__does not include__dict__. If__slots__includes__dict__, arbitrary attributes can be set, similar to when__slots__is not defined (this mirrors Python semantics).All values in
__slots__must be string literals.
Annotation issues at runtime¶
Idiomatic use of type annotations can sometimes run up against what a given version of Python considers legal code. This section describes these scenarios and explains how to get your code running again. Generally speaking, we have three tools at our disposal:
Use of
from __future__ import annotations(PEP 563) (this behaviour may eventually be made the default in a future Python version)Use of string literal types or type comments
Use of
typing.TYPE_CHECKING
We provide a description of these before moving onto discussion of specific problems you may encounter.
String literal types and type comments¶
Mypy allows you to add type annotations using # type: type comments.
For example:
a = 1 # type: int
def f(x): # type: (int) -> int
return x + 1
# Alternative type comment syntax for functions with many arguments
def send_email(
address, # type: Union[str, List[str]]
sender, # type: str
cc, # type: Optional[List[str]]
subject='',
body=None # type: List[str]
):
# type: (...) -> bool
Type comments can’t cause runtime errors because comments are not evaluated by Python.
In a similar way, using string literal types sidesteps the problem of annotations that would cause runtime errors.
Any type can be entered as a string literal, and you can combine string-literal types with non-string-literal types freely:
def f(a: list['A']) -> None: ... # OK, prevents NameError since A is defined later
def g(n: 'int') -> None: ... # Also OK, though not useful
class A: pass
String literal types are never needed in # type: comments and stub files.
String literal types must be defined (or imported) later in the same module. They cannot be used to leave cross-module references unresolved. (For dealing with import cycles, see Import cycles.)
Future annotations import (PEP 563)¶
Many of the issues described here are caused by Python trying to evaluate
annotations. Future Python versions (potentially Python 3.12) will by default no
longer attempt to evaluate function and variable annotations. This behaviour is
made available in Python 3.7 and later through the use of
from __future__ import annotations.
This can be thought of as automatic string literal-ification of all function and variable annotations. Note that function and variable annotations are still required to be valid Python syntax. For more details, see PEP 563.
Note
Even with the __future__ import, there are some scenarios that could
still require string literals or result in errors, typically involving use
of forward references or generics in:
type definitions (see
TypeVar,NewType,NamedTuple);base classes.
# base class example
from __future__ import annotations
class A(tuple['B', 'C']): ... # String literal types needed here
class B: ...
class C: ...
Warning
Some libraries may have use cases for dynamic evaluation of annotations, for
instance, through use of typing.get_type_hints or eval. If your
annotation would raise an error when evaluated (say by using PEP 604
syntax with Python 3.9), you may need to be careful when using such
libraries.
typing.TYPE_CHECKING¶
The typing module defines a TYPE_CHECKING constant
that is False at runtime but treated as True while type checking.
Since code inside if TYPE_CHECKING: is not executed at runtime, it provides
a convenient way to tell mypy something without the code being evaluated at
runtime. This is most useful for resolving import cycles.
Class name forward references¶
Python does not allow references to a class object before the class is defined (aka forward reference). Thus this code does not work as expected:
def f(x: A) -> None: ... # NameError: name "A" is not defined
class A: ...
Starting from Python 3.7, you can add from __future__ import annotations to
resolve this, as discussed earlier:
from __future__ import annotations
def f(x: A) -> None: ... # OK
class A: ...
For Python 3.6 and below, you can enter the type as a string literal or type comment:
def f(x: 'A') -> None: ... # OK
# Also OK
def g(x): # type: (A) -> None
...
class A: ...
Of course, instead of using future annotations import or string literal types, you could move the function definition after the class definition. This is not always desirable or even possible, though.
Import cycles¶
An import cycle occurs where module A imports module B and module B
imports module A (perhaps indirectly, e.g. A -> B -> C -> A).
Sometimes in order to add type annotations you have to add extra
imports to a module and those imports cause cycles that didn’t exist
before. This can lead to errors at runtime like:
ImportError: cannot import name 'b' from partially initialized module 'A' (most likely due to a circular import)
If those cycles do become a problem when running your program, there’s a trick:
if the import is only needed for type annotations and you’re using a) the
future annotations import, or b) string literals or type
comments for the relevant annotations, you can write the imports inside if
TYPE_CHECKING: so that they are not executed at runtime. Example:
File foo.py:
from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
if TYPE_CHECKING:
import bar
def listify(arg: 'bar.BarClass') -> 'list[bar.BarClass]':
return [arg]
File bar.py:
from foo import listify
class BarClass:
def listifyme(self) -> 'list[BarClass]':
return listify(self)
Using classes that are generic in stubs but not at runtime¶
Some classes are declared as generic in stubs, but not at runtime.
In Python 3.8 and earlier, there are several examples within the standard library,
for instance, os.PathLike and queue.Queue. Subscripting
such a class will result in a runtime error:
from queue import Queue
class Tasks(Queue[str]): # TypeError: 'type' object is not subscriptable
...
results: Queue[int] = Queue() # TypeError: 'type' object is not subscriptable
To avoid errors from use of these generics in annotations, just use the future annotations import (or string literals or type comments for Python 3.6 and below).
To avoid errors when inheriting from these classes, things are a little more complicated and you need to use typing.TYPE_CHECKING:
from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
from queue import Queue
if TYPE_CHECKING:
BaseQueue = Queue[str] # this is only processed by mypy
else:
BaseQueue = Queue # this is not seen by mypy but will be executed at runtime
class Tasks(BaseQueue): # OK
...
task_queue: Tasks
reveal_type(task_queue.get()) # Reveals str
If your subclass is also generic, you can use the following:
from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, TypeVar, Generic
from queue import Queue
_T = TypeVar("_T")
if TYPE_CHECKING:
class _MyQueueBase(Queue[_T]): pass
else:
class _MyQueueBase(Generic[_T], Queue): pass
class MyQueue(_MyQueueBase[_T]): pass
task_queue: MyQueue[str]
reveal_type(task_queue.get()) # Reveals str
In Python 3.9, we can just inherit directly from Queue[str] or Queue[T]
since its queue.Queue implements __class_getitem__(), so
the class object can be subscripted at runtime without issue.
Using types defined in stubs but not at runtime¶
Sometimes stubs that you’re using may define types you wish to re-use that do
not exist at runtime. Importing these types naively will cause your code to fail
at runtime with ImportError or ModuleNotFoundError. Similar to previous
sections, these can be dealt with by using typing.TYPE_CHECKING:
from __future__ import annotations
from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
if TYPE_CHECKING:
from _typeshed import SupportsRichComparison
def f(x: SupportsRichComparison) -> None
The from __future__ import annotations is required to avoid
a NameError when using the imported symbol.
For more information and caveats, see the section on
future annotations.
Using generic builtins¶
Starting with Python 3.9 (PEP 585), the type objects of many collections in
the standard library support subscription at runtime. This means that you no
longer have to import the equivalents from typing; you can simply use
the built-in collections or those from collections.abc:
from collections.abc import Sequence
x: list[str]
y: dict[int, str]
z: Sequence[str] = x
There is limited support for using this syntax in Python 3.7 and later as well:
if you use from __future__ import annotations, mypy will understand this
syntax in annotations. However, since this will not be supported by the Python
interpreter at runtime, make sure you’re aware of the caveats mentioned in the
notes at future annotations import.
Using X | Y syntax for Unions¶
Starting with Python 3.10 (PEP 604), you can spell union types as x: int |
str, instead of x: typing.Union[int, str].
There is limited support for using this syntax in Python 3.7 and later as well:
if you use from __future__ import annotations, mypy will understand this
syntax in annotations, string literal types, type comments and stub files.
However, since this will not be supported by the Python interpreter at runtime
(if evaluated, int | str will raise TypeError: unsupported operand type(s)
for |: 'type' and 'type'), make sure you’re aware of the caveats mentioned in
the notes at future annotations import.
Using new additions to the typing module¶
You may find yourself wanting to use features added to the typing
module in earlier versions of Python than the addition, for example, using any
of Literal, Protocol, TypedDict with Python 3.6.
The easiest way to do this is to install and use the typing_extensions
package from PyPI for the relevant imports, for example:
from typing_extensions import Literal
x: Literal["open", "close"]
If you don’t want to rely on typing_extensions being installed on newer
Pythons, you could alternatively use:
import sys
if sys.version_info >= (3, 8):
from typing import Literal
else:
from typing_extensions import Literal
x: Literal["open", "close"]
This plays nicely well with following PEP 508 dependency specification:
typing_extensions; python_version<"3.8"
Protocols and structural subtyping¶
The Python type system supports two ways of deciding whether two objects are compatible as types: nominal subtyping and structural subtyping.
Nominal subtyping is strictly based on the class hierarchy. If class Dog
inherits class Animal, it’s a subtype of Animal. Instances of Dog
can be used when Animal instances are expected. This form of subtyping
is what Python’s type system predominantly uses: it’s easy to
understand and produces clear and concise error messages, and matches how the
native isinstance check works – based on class
hierarchy.
Structural subtyping is based on the operations that can be performed with an
object. Class Dog is a structural subtype of class Animal if the former
has all attributes and methods of the latter, and with compatible types.
Structural subtyping can be seen as a static equivalent of duck typing, which is well known to Python programmers. See PEP 544 for the detailed specification of protocols and structural subtyping in Python.
Predefined protocols¶
The typing module defines various protocol classes that correspond
to common Python protocols, such as Iterable[T]. If a class
defines a suitable __iter__ method, mypy understands that it
implements the iterable protocol and is compatible with Iterable[T].
For example, IntList below is iterable, over int values:
from typing import Iterator, Iterable, Optional
class IntList:
def __init__(self, value: int, next: Optional['IntList']) -> None:
self.value = value
self.next = next
def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]:
current = self
while current:
yield current.value
current = current.next
def print_numbered(items: Iterable[int]) -> None:
for n, x in enumerate(items):
print(n + 1, x)
x = IntList(3, IntList(5, None))
print_numbered(x) # OK
print_numbered([4, 5]) # Also OK
Predefined protocol reference lists all protocols defined in
typing and the signatures of the corresponding methods you need to define
to implement each protocol.
Simple user-defined protocols¶
You can define your own protocol class by inheriting the special Protocol
class:
from typing import Iterable, Protocol
class SupportsClose(Protocol):
# Empty method body (explicit '...')
def close(self) -> None: ...
class Resource: # No SupportsClose base class!
def close(self) -> None:
self.resource.release()
# ... other methods ...
def close_all(items: Iterable[SupportsClose]) -> None:
for item in items:
item.close()
close_all([Resource(), open('some/file')]) # OK
Resource is a subtype of the SupportsClose protocol since it defines
a compatible close method. Regular file objects returned by open() are
similarly compatible with the protocol, as they support close().
Defining subprotocols and subclassing protocols¶
You can also define subprotocols. Existing protocols can be extended and merged using multiple inheritance. Example:
# ... continuing from the previous example
class SupportsRead(Protocol):
def read(self, amount: int) -> bytes: ...
class TaggedReadableResource(SupportsClose, SupportsRead, Protocol):
label: str
class AdvancedResource(Resource):
def __init__(self, label: str) -> None:
self.label = label
def read(self, amount: int) -> bytes:
# some implementation
...
resource: TaggedReadableResource
resource = AdvancedResource('handle with care') # OK
Note that inheriting from an existing protocol does not automatically
turn the subclass into a protocol – it just creates a regular
(non-protocol) class or ABC that implements the given protocol (or
protocols). The Protocol base class must always be explicitly
present if you are defining a protocol:
class NotAProtocol(SupportsClose): # This is NOT a protocol
new_attr: int
class Concrete:
new_attr: int = 0
def close(self) -> None:
...
# Error: nominal subtyping used by default
x: NotAProtocol = Concrete() # Error!
You can also include default implementations of methods in protocols. If you explicitly subclass these protocols you can inherit these default implementations.
Explicitly including a protocol as a base class is also a way of documenting that your class implements a particular protocol, and it forces mypy to verify that your class implementation is actually compatible with the protocol. In particular, omitting a value for an attribute or a method body will make it implicitly abstract:
class SomeProto(Protocol):
attr: int # Note, no right hand side
def method(self) -> str: ... # Literally just ... here
class ExplicitSubclass(SomeProto):
pass
ExplicitSubclass() # error: Cannot instantiate abstract class 'ExplicitSubclass'
# with abstract attributes 'attr' and 'method'
Similarly, explicitly assigning to a protocol instance can be a way to ask the type checker to verify that your class implements a protocol:
_proto: SomeProto = cast(ExplicitSubclass, None)
Invariance of protocol attributes¶
A common issue with protocols is that protocol attributes are invariant. For example:
class Box(Protocol):
content: object
class IntBox:
content: int
def takes_box(box: Box) -> None: ...
takes_box(IntBox()) # error: Argument 1 to "takes_box" has incompatible type "IntBox"; expected "Box"
# note: Following member(s) of "IntBox" have conflicts:
# note: content: expected "object", got "int"
This is because Box defines content as a mutable attribute.
Here’s why this is problematic:
def takes_box_evil(box: Box) -> None:
box.content = "asdf" # This is bad, since box.content is supposed to be an object
my_int_box = IntBox()
takes_box_evil(my_int_box)
my_int_box.content + 1 # Oops, TypeError!
This can be fixed by declaring content to be read-only in the Box
protocol using @property:
class Box(Protocol):
@property
def content(self) -> object: ...
class IntBox:
content: int
def takes_box(box: Box) -> None: ...
takes_box(IntBox(42)) # OK
Recursive protocols¶
Protocols can be recursive (self-referential) and mutually recursive. This is useful for declaring abstract recursive collections such as trees and linked lists:
from typing import TypeVar, Optional, Protocol
class TreeLike(Protocol):
value: int
@property
def left(self) -> Optional['TreeLike']: ...
@property
def right(self) -> Optional['TreeLike']: ...
class SimpleTree:
def __init__(self, value: int) -> None:
self.value = value
self.left: Optional['SimpleTree'] = None
self.right: Optional['SimpleTree'] = None
root: TreeLike = SimpleTree(0) # OK
Using isinstance() with protocols¶
You can use a protocol class with isinstance() if you decorate it
with the @runtime_checkable class decorator. The decorator adds
rudimentary support for runtime structural checks:
from typing import Protocol, runtime_checkable
@runtime_checkable
class Portable(Protocol):
handles: int
class Mug:
def __init__(self) -> None:
self.handles = 1
def use(handles: int) -> None: ...
mug = Mug()
if isinstance(mug, Portable): # Works at runtime!
use(mug.handles)
isinstance() also works with the predefined protocols
in typing such as Iterable.
Warning
isinstance() with protocols is not completely safe at runtime.
For example, signatures of methods are not checked. The runtime
implementation only checks that all protocol members exist,
not that they have the correct type. issubclass() with protocols
will only check for the existence of methods.
Note
isinstance() with protocols can also be surprisingly slow.
In many cases, you’re better served by using hasattr() to
check for the presence of attributes.
Callback protocols¶
Protocols can be used to define flexible callback types that are hard
(or even impossible) to express using the Callable[...] syntax, such as variadic,
overloaded, and complex generic callbacks. They are defined with a special __call__
member:
from typing import Optional, Iterable, Protocol
class Combiner(Protocol):
def __call__(self, *vals: bytes, maxlen: Optional[int] = None) -> list[bytes]: ...
def batch_proc(data: Iterable[bytes], cb_results: Combiner) -> bytes:
for item in data:
...
def good_cb(*vals: bytes, maxlen: Optional[int] = None) -> list[bytes]:
...
def bad_cb(*vals: bytes, maxitems: Optional[int]) -> list[bytes]:
...
batch_proc([], good_cb) # OK
batch_proc([], bad_cb) # Error! Argument 2 has incompatible type because of
# different name and kind in the callback
Callback protocols and Callable types can be used mostly interchangeably.
Argument names in __call__ methods must be identical, unless
a double underscore prefix is used. For example:
from typing import Callable, Protocol, TypeVar
T = TypeVar('T')
class Copy(Protocol):
def __call__(self, __origin: T) -> T: ...
copy_a: Callable[[T], T]
copy_b: Copy
copy_a = copy_b # OK
copy_b = copy_a # Also OK
Predefined protocol reference¶
Iteration protocols¶
The iteration protocols are useful in many contexts. For example, they allow iteration of objects in for loops.
Iterable[T]¶
The example above has a simple implementation of an
__iter__ method.
def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[T]
See also Iterable.
Iterator[T]¶
def __next__(self) -> T
def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[T]
See also Iterator.
Collection protocols¶
Many of these are implemented by built-in container types such as
list and dict, and these are also useful for user-defined
collection objects.
Sized¶
This is a type for objects that support len(x).
def __len__(self) -> int
See also Sized.
Container[T]¶
This is a type for objects that support the in operator.
def __contains__(self, x: object) -> bool
See also Container.
Collection[T]¶
def __len__(self) -> int
def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[T]
def __contains__(self, x: object) -> bool
See also Collection.
One-off protocols¶
These protocols are typically only useful with a single standard library function or class.
Reversible[T]¶
This is a type for objects that support reversed(x).
def __reversed__(self) -> Iterator[T]
See also Reversible.
SupportsAbs[T]¶
This is a type for objects that support abs(x). T is the type of
value returned by abs(x).
def __abs__(self) -> T
See also SupportsAbs.
SupportsBytes¶
This is a type for objects that support bytes(x).
def __bytes__(self) -> bytes
See also SupportsBytes.
SupportsComplex¶
This is a type for objects that support complex(x). Note that no arithmetic operations
are supported.
def __complex__(self) -> complex
See also SupportsComplex.
SupportsFloat¶
This is a type for objects that support float(x). Note that no arithmetic operations
are supported.
def __float__(self) -> float
See also SupportsFloat.
SupportsInt¶
This is a type for objects that support int(x). Note that no arithmetic operations
are supported.
def __int__(self) -> int
See also SupportsInt.
SupportsRound[T]¶
This is a type for objects that support round(x).
def __round__(self) -> T
See also SupportsRound.
Async protocols¶
These protocols can be useful in async code. See Typing async/await for more information.
Awaitable[T]¶
def __await__(self) -> Generator[Any, None, T]
See also Awaitable.
AsyncIterable[T]¶
def __aiter__(self) -> AsyncIterator[T]
See also AsyncIterable.
AsyncIterator[T]¶
def __anext__(self) -> Awaitable[T]
def __aiter__(self) -> AsyncIterator[T]
See also AsyncIterator.
Context manager protocols¶
There are two protocols for context managers – one for regular context
managers and one for async ones. These allow defining objects that can
be used in with and async with statements.
ContextManager[T]¶
def __enter__(self) -> T
def __exit__(self,
exc_type: Optional[Type[BaseException]],
exc_value: Optional[BaseException],
traceback: Optional[TracebackType]) -> Optional[bool]
See also ContextManager.
AsyncContextManager[T]¶
def __aenter__(self) -> Awaitable[T]
def __aexit__(self,
exc_type: Optional[Type[BaseException]],
exc_value: Optional[BaseException],
traceback: Optional[TracebackType]) -> Awaitable[Optional[bool]]
See also AsyncContextManager.
Dynamically typed code¶
In Dynamic vs static typing, we discussed how bodies of functions that don’t have any explicit type annotations in their function are “dynamically typed” and that mypy will not check them. In this section, we’ll talk a little bit more about what that means and how you can enable dynamic typing on a more fine grained basis.
In cases where your code is too magical for mypy to understand, you can make a
variable or parameter dynamically typed by explicitly giving it the type
Any. Mypy will let you do basically anything with a value of type Any,
including assigning a value of type Any to a variable of any type (or vice
versa).
from typing import Any
num = 1 # Statically typed (inferred to be int)
num = 'x' # error: Incompatible types in assignment (expression has type "str", variable has type "int")
dyn: Any = 1 # Dynamically typed (type Any)
dyn = 'x' # OK
num = dyn # No error, mypy will let you assign a value of type Any to any variable
num += 1 # Oops, mypy still thinks num is an int
You can think of Any as a way to locally disable type checking.
See Silencing type errors for other ways you can shut up
the type checker.
Operations on Any values¶
You can do anything using a value with type Any, and the type checker
will not complain:
def f(x: Any) -> int:
# All of these are valid!
x.foobar(1, y=2)
print(x[3] + 'f')
if x:
x.z = x(2)
open(x).read()
return x
Values derived from an Any value also usually have the type Any
implicitly, as mypy can’t infer a more precise result type. For
example, if you get the attribute of an Any value or call a
Any value the result is Any:
def f(x: Any) -> None:
y = x.foo()
reveal_type(y) # Revealed type is "Any"
z = y.bar("mypy will let you do anything to y")
reveal_type(z) # Revealed type is "Any"
Any types may propagate through your program, making type checking
less effective, unless you are careful.
Function parameters without annotations are also implicitly Any:
def f(x) -> None:
reveal_type(x) # Revealed type is "Any"
x.can.do["anything", x]("wants", 2)
You can make mypy warn you about untyped function parameters using the
--disallow-untyped-defs flag.
Generic types missing type parameters will have those parameters implicitly
treated as Any:
from typing import List
def f(x: List) -> None:
reveal_type(x) # Revealed type is "builtins.list[Any]"
reveal_type(x[0]) # Revealed type is "Any"
x[0].anything_goes() # OK
You can make mypy warn you about untyped function parameters using the
--disallow-any-generics flag.
Finally, another major source of Any types leaking into your program is from
third party libraries that mypy does not know about. This is particularly the case
when using the --ignore-missing-imports
flag. See Missing imports for more information about this.
Any vs. object¶
The type object is another type that can have an instance of arbitrary
type as a value. Unlike Any, object is an ordinary static type (it
is similar to Object in Java), and only operations valid for all
types are accepted for object values. These are all valid:
def f(o: object) -> None:
if o:
print(o)
print(isinstance(o, int))
o = 2
o = 'foo'
These are, however, flagged as errors, since not all objects support these operations:
def f(o: object) -> None:
o.foo() # Error!
o + 2 # Error!
open(o) # Error!
n: int = 1
n = o # Error!
If you’re not sure whether you need to use object or Any, use
object – only switch to using Any if you get a type checker
complaint.
You can use different type narrowing
techniques to narrow object to a more specific
type (subtype) such as int. Type narrowing is not needed with
dynamically typed values (values with type Any).
Type narrowing¶
This section is dedicated to several type narrowing techniques which are supported by mypy.
Type narrowing is when you convince a type checker that a broader type is actually more specific, for instance, that an object of type Shape is actually of the narrower type Square.
Type narrowing expressions¶
The simplest way to narrow a type is to use one of the supported expressions:
isinstance()like inisinstance(obj, float)will narrowobjto havefloattypeissubclass()like inissubclass(cls, MyClass)will narrowclsto beType[MyClass]typelike intype(obj) is intwill narrowobjto haveinttypecallable()like incallable(obj)will narrow object to callable typeobj is not Nonewill narrow object to its non-optional form
Type narrowing is contextual. For example, based on the condition, mypy will narrow an expression only within an if branch:
def function(arg: object):
if isinstance(arg, int):
# Type is narrowed within the ``if`` branch only
reveal_type(arg) # Revealed type: "builtins.int"
elif isinstance(arg, str) or isinstance(arg, bool):
# Type is narrowed differently within this ``elif`` branch:
reveal_type(arg) # Revealed type: "builtins.str | builtins.bool"
# Subsequent narrowing operations will narrow the type further
if isinstance(arg, bool):
reveal_type(arg) # Revealed type: "builtins.bool"
# Back outside of the ``if`` statement, the type isn't narrowed:
reveal_type(arg) # Revealed type: "builtins.object"
Mypy understands the implications return or exception raising can have
for what type an object could be:
def function(arg: int | str):
if isinstance(arg, int):
return
# `arg` can't be `int` at this point:
reveal_type(arg) # Revealed type: "builtins.str"
We can also use assert to narrow types in the same context:
def function(arg: Any):
assert isinstance(arg, int)
reveal_type(arg) # Revealed type: "builtins.int"
Note
With --warn-unreachable
narrowing types to some impossible state will be treated as an error.
def function(arg: int):
# error: Subclass of "int" and "str" cannot exist:
# would have incompatible method signatures
assert isinstance(arg, str)
# error: Statement is unreachable
print("so mypy concludes the assert will always trigger")
Without --warn-unreachable mypy will simply not check code it deems to be
unreachable. See Unreachable code for more information.
x: int = 1
assert isinstance(x, str)
reveal_type(x) # Revealed type is "builtins.int"
print(x + '!') # Typechecks with `mypy`, but fails in runtime.
issubclass¶
Mypy can also use issubclass()
for better type inference when working with types and metaclasses:
class MyCalcMeta(type):
@classmethod
def calc(cls) -> int:
...
def f(o: object) -> None:
t = type(o) # We must use a variable here
reveal_type(t) # Revealed type is "builtins.type"
if issubclass(t, MyCalcMeta): # `issubclass(type(o), MyCalcMeta)` won't work
reveal_type(t) # Revealed type is "Type[MyCalcMeta]"
t.calc() # Okay
callable¶
Mypy knows what types are callable and which ones are not during type checking.
So, we know what callable() will return. For example:
from typing import Callable
x: Callable[[], int]
if callable(x):
reveal_type(x) # N: Revealed type is "def () -> builtins.int"
else:
... # Will never be executed and will raise error with `--warn-unreachable`
callable function can even split Union type
for callable and non-callable parts:
from typing import Callable, Union
x: Union[int, Callable[[], int]]
if callable(x):
reveal_type(x) # N: Revealed type is "def () -> builtins.int"
else:
reveal_type(x) # N: Revealed type is "builtins.int"
Casts¶
Mypy supports type casts that are usually used to coerce a statically
typed value to a subtype. Unlike languages such as Java or C#,
however, mypy casts are only used as hints for the type checker, and they
don’t perform a runtime type check. Use the function cast()
to perform a cast:
from typing import cast
o: object = [1]
x = cast(list[int], o) # OK
y = cast(list[str], o) # OK (cast performs no actual runtime check)
To support runtime checking of casts such as the above, we’d have to check the types of all list items, which would be very inefficient for large lists. Casts are used to silence spurious type checker warnings and give the type checker a little help when it can’t quite understand what is going on.
Note
You can use an assertion if you want to perform an actual runtime check:
def foo(o: object) -> None:
print(o + 5) # Error: can't add 'object' and 'int'
assert isinstance(o, int)
print(o + 5) # OK: type of 'o' is 'int' here
You don’t need a cast for expressions with type Any, or when
assigning to a variable with type Any, as was explained earlier.
You can also use Any as the cast target type – this lets you perform
any operations on the result. For example:
from typing import cast, Any
x = 1
x.whatever() # Type check error
y = cast(Any, x)
y.whatever() # Type check OK (runtime error)
User-Defined Type Guards¶
Mypy supports User-Defined Type Guards (PEP 647).
A type guard is a way for programs to influence conditional type narrowing employed by a type checker based on runtime checks.
Basically, a TypeGuard is a “smart” alias for a bool type.
Let’s have a look at the regular bool example:
def is_str_list(val: list[object]) -> bool:
"""Determines whether all objects in the list are strings"""
return all(isinstance(x, str) for x in val)
def func1(val: list[object]) -> None:
if is_str_list(val):
reveal_type(val) # Reveals list[object]
print(" ".join(val)) # Error: incompatible type
The same example with TypeGuard:
from typing import TypeGuard # use `typing_extensions` for Python 3.9 and below
def is_str_list(val: list[object]) -> TypeGuard[list[str]]:
"""Determines whether all objects in the list are strings"""
return all(isinstance(x, str) for x in val)
def func1(val: list[object]) -> None:
if is_str_list(val):
reveal_type(val) # list[str]
print(" ".join(val)) # ok
How does it work? TypeGuard narrows the first function argument (val)
to the type specified as the first type parameter (list[str]).
Note
Narrowing is
not strict.
For example, you can narrow str to int:
def f(value: str) -> TypeGuard[int]:
return True
Note: since strict narrowing is not enforced, it’s easy to break type safety.
However, there are many ways a determined or uninformed developer can subvert type safety – most commonly by using cast or Any. If a Python developer takes the time to learn about and implement user-defined type guards within their code, it is safe to assume that they are interested in type safety and will not write their type guard functions in a way that will undermine type safety or produce nonsensical results.
Generic TypeGuards¶
TypeGuard can also work with generic types:
from typing import TypeVar
from typing import TypeGuard # use `typing_extensions` for `python<3.10`
_T = TypeVar("_T")
def is_two_element_tuple(val: tuple[_T, ...]) -> TypeGuard[tuple[_T, _T]]:
return len(val) == 2
def func(names: tuple[str, ...]):
if is_two_element_tuple(names):
reveal_type(names) # tuple[str, str]
else:
reveal_type(names) # tuple[str, ...]
TypeGuards with parameters¶
Type guard functions can accept extra arguments:
from typing import Type, TypeVar
from typing import TypeGuard # use `typing_extensions` for `python<3.10`
_T = TypeVar("_T")
def is_set_of(val: set[Any], type: Type[_T]) -> TypeGuard[set[_T]]:
return all(isinstance(x, type) for x in val)
items: set[Any]
if is_set_of(items, str):
reveal_type(items) # set[str]
TypeGuards as methods¶
A method can also serve as a TypeGuard:
class StrValidator:
def is_valid(self, instance: object) -> TypeGuard[str]:
return isinstance(instance, str)
def func(to_validate: object) -> None:
if StrValidator().is_valid(to_validate):
reveal_type(to_validate) # Revealed type is "builtins.str"
Note
Note, that TypeGuard
does not narrow
types of self or cls implicit arguments.
If narrowing of self or cls is required,
the value can be passed as an explicit argument to a type guard function:
class Parent:
def method(self) -> None:
reveal_type(self) # Revealed type is "Parent"
if is_child(self):
reveal_type(self) # Revealed type is "Child"
class Child(Parent):
...
def is_child(instance: Parent) -> TypeGuard[Child]:
return isinstance(instance, Child)
Assignment expressions as TypeGuards¶
Sometimes you might need to create a new variable and narrow it
to some specific type at the same time.
This can be achieved by using TypeGuard together
with := operator.
from typing import TypeGuard # use `typing_extensions` for `python<3.10`
def is_float(a: object) -> TypeGuard[float]:
return isinstance(a, float)
def main(a: object) -> None:
if is_float(x := a):
reveal_type(x) # N: Revealed type is 'builtins.float'
reveal_type(a) # N: Revealed type is 'builtins.object'
reveal_type(x) # N: Revealed type is 'builtins.object'
reveal_type(a) # N: Revealed type is 'builtins.object'
What happens here?
We create a new variable
xand assign a value ofato itWe run
is_float()type guard onxIt narrows
xto befloatin theifcontext and does not toucha
Note
The same will work with isinstance(x := a, float) as well.
Limitations¶
Mypy’s analysis is limited to individual symbols and it will not track
relationships between symbols. For example, in the following code
it’s easy to deduce that if a is None then b must not be,
therefore a or b will always be a string, but Mypy will not be able to tell that:
def f(a: str | None, b: str | None) -> str:
if a is not None or b is not None:
return a or b # Incompatible return value type (got "str | None", expected "str")
return 'spam'
Tracking these sort of cross-variable conditions in a type checker would add significant complexity and performance overhead.
You can use an assert to convince the type checker, override it with a cast
or rewrite the function to be slightly more verbose:
def f(a: str | None, b: str | None) -> str:
if a is not None:
return a
elif b is not None:
return b
return 'spam'
Duck type compatibility¶
In Python, certain types are compatible even though they aren’t subclasses of
each other. For example, int objects are valid whenever float objects
are expected. Mypy supports this idiom via duck type compatibility. This is
supported for a small set of built-in types:
intis duck type compatible withfloatandcomplex.floatis duck type compatible withcomplex.bytearrayandmemoryvieware duck type compatible withbytes.
For example, mypy considers an int object to be valid whenever a
float object is expected. Thus code like this is nice and clean
and also behaves as expected:
import math
def degrees_to_radians(degrees: float) -> float:
return math.pi * degrees / 180
n = 90 # Inferred type 'int'
print(degrees_to_radians(n)) # Okay!
You can also often use Protocols and structural subtyping to achieve a similar effect in
a more principled and extensible fashion. Protocols don’t apply to
cases like int being compatible with float, since float is not
a protocol class but a regular, concrete class, and many standard library
functions expect concrete instances of float (or int).
Stub files¶
A stub file is a file containing a skeleton of the public interface of that Python module, including classes, variables, functions – and most importantly, their types.
Mypy uses stub files stored in the typeshed repository to determine the types of standard library and third-party library functions, classes, and other definitions. You can also create your own stubs that will be used to type check your code.
Creating a stub¶
Here is an overview of how to create a stub file:
Write a stub file for the library (or an arbitrary module) and store it as a
.pyifile in the same directory as the library module.Alternatively, put your stubs (
.pyifiles) in a directory reserved for stubs (e.g.,myproject/stubs). In this case you have to set the environment variableMYPYPATHto refer to the directory. For example:$ export MYPYPATH=~/work/myproject/stubs
Use the normal Python file name conventions for modules, e.g. csv.pyi
for module csv. Use a subdirectory with __init__.pyi for packages. Note
that PEP 561 stub-only packages must be installed, and may not be pointed
at through the MYPYPATH (see PEP 561 support).
If a directory contains both a .py and a .pyi file for the
same module, the .pyi file takes precedence. This way you can
easily add annotations for a module even if you don’t want to modify
the source code. This can be useful, for example, if you use 3rd party
open source libraries in your program (and there are no stubs in
typeshed yet).
That’s it!
Now you can access the module in mypy programs and type check code that uses the library. If you write a stub for a library module, consider making it available for other programmers that use mypy by contributing it back to the typeshed repo.
Mypy also ships with two tools for making it easier to create and maintain stubs: Automatic stub generation (stubgen) and Automatic stub testing (stubtest).
The following sections explain the kinds of type annotations you can use in your programs and stub files.
Note
You may be tempted to point MYPYPATH to the standard library or
to the site-packages directory where your 3rd party packages
are installed. This is almost always a bad idea – you will likely
get tons of error messages about code you didn’t write and that
mypy can’t analyze all that well yet, and in the worst case
scenario mypy may crash due to some construct in a 3rd party
package that it didn’t expect.
Stub file syntax¶
Stub files are written in normal Python syntax, but generally leaving out runtime logic like variable initializers, function bodies, and default arguments.
If it is not possible to completely leave out some piece of runtime
logic, the recommended convention is to replace or elide them with ellipsis
expressions (...). Each ellipsis below is literally written in the
stub file as three dots:
# Variables with annotations do not need to be assigned a value.
# So by convention, we omit them in the stub file.
x: int
# Function bodies cannot be completely removed. By convention,
# we replace them with `...` instead of the `pass` statement.
def func_1(code: str) -> int: ...
# We can do the same with default arguments.
def func_2(a: int, b: int = ...) -> int: ...
Note
The ellipsis ... is also used with a different meaning in
callable types and tuple types.
Using stub file syntax at runtime¶
You may also occasionally need to elide actual logic in regular Python code – for example, when writing methods in overload variants or custom protocols.
The recommended style is to use ellipses to do so, just like in
stub files. It is also considered stylistically acceptable to
throw a NotImplementedError in cases where the user of the
code may accidentally call functions with no actual logic.
You can also elide default arguments as long as the function body
also contains no runtime logic: the function body only contains
a single ellipsis, the pass statement, or a raise NotImplementedError().
It is also acceptable for the function body to contain a docstring.
For example:
from typing import Protocol
class Resource(Protocol):
def ok_1(self, foo: list[str] = ...) -> None: ...
def ok_2(self, foo: list[str] = ...) -> None:
raise NotImplementedError()
def ok_3(self, foo: list[str] = ...) -> None:
"""Some docstring"""
pass
# Error: Incompatible default for argument "foo" (default has
# type "ellipsis", argument has type "list[str]")
def not_ok(self, foo: list[str] = ...) -> None:
print(foo)
Generics¶
This section explains how you can define your own generic classes that take
one or more type parameters, similar to built-in types such as list[X].
User-defined generics are a moderately advanced feature and you can get far
without ever using them – feel free to skip this section and come back later.
Defining generic classes¶
The built-in collection classes are generic classes. Generic types
have one or more type parameters, which can be arbitrary types. For
example, dict[int, str] has the type parameters int and
str, and list[int] has a type parameter int.
Programs can also define new generic classes. Here is a very simple generic class that represents a stack:
from typing import TypeVar, Generic
T = TypeVar('T')
class Stack(Generic[T]):
def __init__(self) -> None:
# Create an empty list with items of type T
self.items: list[T] = []
def push(self, item: T) -> None:
self.items.append(item)
def pop(self) -> T:
return self.items.pop()
def empty(self) -> bool:
return not self.items
The Stack class can be used to represent a stack of any type:
Stack[int], Stack[tuple[int, str]], etc.
Using Stack is similar to built-in container types:
# Construct an empty Stack[int] instance
stack = Stack[int]()
stack.push(2)
stack.pop()
stack.push('x') # error: Argument 1 to "push" of "Stack" has incompatible type "str"; expected "int"
Construction of instances of generic types is type checked:
class Box(Generic[T]):
def __init__(self, content: T) -> None:
self.content = content
Box(1) # OK, inferred type is Box[int]
Box[int](1) # Also OK
Box[int]('some string') # error: Argument 1 to "Box" has incompatible type "str"; expected "int"
Defining subclasses of generic classes¶
User-defined generic classes and generic classes defined in typing
can be used as a base class for another class (generic or non-generic). For example:
from typing import Generic, TypeVar, Mapping, Iterator
KT = TypeVar('KT')
VT = TypeVar('VT')
# This is a generic subclass of Mapping
class MyMap(Mapping[KT, VT]):
def __getitem__(self, k: KT) -> VT: ...
def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[KT]: ...
def __len__(self) -> int: ...
items: MyMap[str, int] # OK
# This is a non-generic subclass of dict
class StrDict(dict[str, str]):
def __str__(self) -> str:
return f'StrDict({super().__str__()})'
data: StrDict[int, int] # Error! StrDict is not generic
data2: StrDict # OK
# This is a user-defined generic class
class Receiver(Generic[T]):
def accept(self, value: T) -> None: ...
# This is a generic subclass of Receiver
class AdvancedReceiver(Receiver[T]): ...
Note
You have to add an explicit Mapping base class
if you want mypy to consider a user-defined class as a mapping (and
Sequence for sequences, etc.). This is because mypy doesn’t use
structural subtyping for these ABCs, unlike simpler protocols
like Iterable, which use structural subtyping.
Generic can be omitted from bases if there are
other base classes that include type variables, such as Mapping[KT, VT]
in the above example. If you include Generic[...] in bases, then
it should list all type variables present in other bases (or more,
if needed). The order of type variables is defined by the following
rules:
If
Generic[...]is present, then the order of variables is always determined by their order inGeneric[...].If there are no
Generic[...]in bases, then all type variables are collected in the lexicographic order (i.e. by first appearance).
For example:
from typing import Generic, TypeVar, Any
T = TypeVar('T')
S = TypeVar('S')
U = TypeVar('U')
class One(Generic[T]): ...
class Another(Generic[T]): ...
class First(One[T], Another[S]): ...
class Second(One[T], Another[S], Generic[S, U, T]): ...
x: First[int, str] # Here T is bound to int, S is bound to str
y: Second[int, str, Any] # Here T is Any, S is int, and U is str
Generic functions¶
Type variables can be used to define generic functions:
from typing import TypeVar, Sequence
T = TypeVar('T')
# A generic function!
def first(seq: Sequence[T]) -> T:
return seq[0]
As with generic classes, the type variable can be replaced with any
type. That means first can be used with any sequence type, and the
return type is derived from the sequence item type. For example:
reveal_type(first([1, 2, 3])) # Revealed type is "builtins.int"
reveal_type(first(['a', 'b'])) # Revealed type is "builtins.str"
Note also that a single definition of a type variable (such as T
above) can be used in multiple generic functions or classes. In this
example we use the same type variable in two generic functions:
from typing import TypeVar, Sequence
T = TypeVar('T') # Declare type variable
def first(seq: Sequence[T]) -> T:
return seq[0]
def last(seq: Sequence[T]) -> T:
return seq[-1]
A variable cannot have a type variable in its type unless the type variable is bound in a containing generic class or function.
Generic methods and generic self¶
You can also define generic methods — just use a type variable in the
method signature that is different from class type variables. In
particular, the self argument may also be generic, allowing a
method to return the most precise type known at the point of access.
In this way, for example, you can type check a chain of setter
methods:
from typing import TypeVar
T = TypeVar('T', bound='Shape')
class Shape:
def set_scale(self: T, scale: float) -> T:
self.scale = scale
return self
class Circle(Shape):
def set_radius(self, r: float) -> 'Circle':
self.radius = r
return self
class Square(Shape):
def set_width(self, w: float) -> 'Square':
self.width = w
return self
circle: Circle = Circle().set_scale(0.5).set_radius(2.7)
square: Square = Square().set_scale(0.5).set_width(3.2)
Without using generic self, the last two lines could not be type
checked properly, since the return type of set_scale would be
Shape, which doesn’t define set_radius or set_width.
Other uses are factory methods, such as copy and deserialization.
For class methods, you can also define generic cls, using Type[T]:
from typing import TypeVar, Type
T = TypeVar('T', bound='Friend')
class Friend:
other: "Friend" = None
@classmethod
def make_pair(cls: Type[T]) -> tuple[T, T]:
a, b = cls(), cls()
a.other = b
b.other = a
return a, b
class SuperFriend(Friend):
pass
a, b = SuperFriend.make_pair()
Note that when overriding a method with generic self, you must either
return a generic self too, or return an instance of the current class.
In the latter case, you must implement this method in all future subclasses.
Note also that mypy cannot always verify that the implementation of a copy
or a deserialization method returns the actual type of self. Therefore
you may need to silence mypy inside these methods (but not at the call site),
possibly by making use of the Any type or a # type: ignore comment.
Note that mypy lets you use generic self types in certain unsafe ways in order to support common idioms. For example, using a generic self type in an argument type is accepted even though it’s unsafe:
from typing import TypeVar
T = TypeVar("T")
class Base:
def compare(self: T, other: T) -> bool:
return False
class Sub(Base):
def __init__(self, x: int) -> None:
self.x = x
# This is unsafe (see below) but allowed because it's
# a common pattern and rarely causes issues in practice.
def compare(self, other: Sub) -> bool:
return self.x > other.x
b: Base = Sub(42)
b.compare(Base()) # Runtime error here: 'Base' object has no attribute 'x'
For some advanced uses of self types, see additional examples.
Automatic self types using typing.Self¶
Since the patterns described above are quite common, mypy supports a
simpler syntax, introduced in PEP 673, to make them easier to use.
Instead of defining a type variable and using an explicit annotation
for self, you can import the special type typing.Self that is
automatically transformed into a type variable with the current class
as the upper bound, and you don’t need an annotation for self (or
cls in class methods). The example from the previous section can
be made simpler by using Self:
from typing import Self
class Friend:
other: Self | None = None
@classmethod
def make_pair(cls) -> tuple[Self, Self]:
a, b = cls(), cls()
a.other = b
b.other = a
return a, b
class SuperFriend(Friend):
pass
a, b = SuperFriend.make_pair()
This is more compact than using explicit type variables. Also, you can
use Self in attribute annotations in addition to methods.
Note
To use this feature on Python versions earlier than 3.11, you will need to
import Self from typing_extensions (version 4.0 or newer).
Variance of generic types¶
There are three main kinds of generic types with respect to subtype
relations between them: invariant, covariant, and contravariant.
Assuming that we have a pair of types A and B, and B is
a subtype of A, these are defined as follows:
A generic class
MyCovGen[T]is called covariant in type variableTifMyCovGen[B]is always a subtype ofMyCovGen[A].A generic class
MyContraGen[T]is called contravariant in type variableTifMyContraGen[A]is always a subtype ofMyContraGen[B].A generic class
MyInvGen[T]is called invariant inTif neither of the above is true.
Let us illustrate this by few simple examples:
# We'll use these classes in the examples below
class Shape: ...
class Triangle(Shape): ...
class Square(Shape): ...
Most immutable containers, such as
SequenceandFrozenSetare covariant.Unionis also covariant in all variables:Union[Triangle, int]is a subtype ofUnion[Shape, int].def count_lines(shapes: Sequence[Shape]) -> int: return sum(shape.num_sides for shape in shapes) triangles: Sequence[Triangle] count_lines(triangles) # OK def foo(triangle: Triangle, num: int): shape_or_number: Union[Shape, int] # a Triangle is a Shape, and a Shape is a valid Union[Shape, int] shape_or_number = triangle
Covariance should feel relatively intuitive, but contravariance and invariance can be harder to reason about.
Callableis an example of type that behaves contravariant in types of arguments. That is,Callable[[Shape], int]is a subtype ofCallable[[Triangle], int], despiteShapebeing a supertype ofTriangle. To understand this, consider:def cost_of_paint_required( triangle: Triangle, area_calculator: Callable[[Triangle], float] ) -> float: return area_calculator(triangle) * DOLLAR_PER_SQ_FT # This straightforwardly works def area_of_triangle(triangle: Triangle) -> float: ... cost_of_paint_required(triangle, area_of_triangle) # OK # But this works as well! def area_of_any_shape(shape: Shape) -> float: ... cost_of_paint_required(triangle, area_of_any_shape) # OK
cost_of_paint_requiredneeds a callable that can calculate the area of a triangle. If we give it a callable that can calculate the area of an arbitrary shape (not just triangles), everything still works.Listis an invariant generic type. Naively, one would think that it is covariant, likeSequenceabove, but consider this code:class Circle(Shape): # The rotate method is only defined on Circle, not on Shape def rotate(self): ... def add_one(things: list[Shape]) -> None: things.append(Shape()) my_circles: list[Circle] = [] add_one(my_circles) # This may appear safe, but... my_circles[-1].rotate() # ...this will fail, since my_circles[0] is now a Shape, not a Circle
Another example of invariant type is
Dict. Most mutable containers are invariant.
By default, mypy assumes that all user-defined generics are invariant.
To declare a given generic class as covariant or contravariant use
type variables defined with special keyword arguments covariant or
contravariant. For example:
from typing import Generic, TypeVar
T_co = TypeVar('T_co', covariant=True)
class Box(Generic[T_co]): # this type is declared covariant
def __init__(self, content: T_co) -> None:
self._content = content
def get_content(self) -> T_co:
return self._content
def look_into(box: Box[Animal]): ...
my_box = Box(Cat())
look_into(my_box) # OK, but mypy would complain here for an invariant type
Type variables with upper bounds¶
A type variable can also be restricted to having values that are
subtypes of a specific type. This type is called the upper bound of
the type variable, and is specified with the bound=... keyword
argument to TypeVar.
from typing import TypeVar, SupportsAbs
T = TypeVar('T', bound=SupportsAbs[float])
In the definition of a generic function that uses such a type variable
T, the type represented by T is assumed to be a subtype of
its upper bound, so the function can use methods of the upper bound on
values of type T.
def largest_in_absolute_value(*xs: T) -> T:
return max(xs, key=abs) # Okay, because T is a subtype of SupportsAbs[float].
In a call to such a function, the type T must be replaced by a
type that is a subtype of its upper bound. Continuing the example
above:
largest_in_absolute_value(-3.5, 2) # Okay, has type float.
largest_in_absolute_value(5+6j, 7) # Okay, has type complex.
largest_in_absolute_value('a', 'b') # Error: 'str' is not a subtype of SupportsAbs[float].
Type parameters of generic classes may also have upper bounds, which restrict the valid values for the type parameter in the same way.
Type variables with value restriction¶
By default, a type variable can be replaced with any type. However, sometimes
it’s useful to have a type variable that can only have some specific types
as its value. A typical example is a type variable that can only have values
str and bytes:
from typing import TypeVar
AnyStr = TypeVar('AnyStr', str, bytes)
This is actually such a common type variable that AnyStr is
defined in typing and we don’t need to define it ourselves.
We can use AnyStr to define a function that can concatenate
two strings or bytes objects, but it can’t be called with other
argument types:
from typing import AnyStr
def concat(x: AnyStr, y: AnyStr) -> AnyStr:
return x + y
concat('a', 'b') # Okay
concat(b'a', b'b') # Okay
concat(1, 2) # Error!
Importantly, this is different from a union type, since combinations
of str and bytes are not accepted:
concat('string', b'bytes') # Error!
In this case, this is exactly what we want, since it’s not possible
to concatenate a string and a bytes object! If we tried to use
Union, the type checker would complain about this possibility:
def union_concat(x: Union[str, bytes], y: Union[str, bytes]) -> Union[str, bytes]:
return x + y # Error: can't concatenate str and bytes
Another interesting special case is calling concat() with a
subtype of str:
class S(str): pass
ss = concat(S('foo'), S('bar'))
reveal_type(ss) # Revealed type is "builtins.str"
You may expect that the type of ss is S, but the type is
actually str: a subtype gets promoted to one of the valid values
for the type variable, which in this case is str.
This is thus
subtly different from bounded quantification in languages such as
Java, where the return type would be S. The way mypy implements
this is correct for concat, since concat actually returns a
str instance in the above example:
>>> print(type(ss))
<class 'str'>
You can also use a TypeVar with a restricted set of possible
values when defining a generic class. For example, mypy uses the type
Pattern[AnyStr] for the return value of re.compile(),
since regular expressions can be based on a string or a bytes pattern.
A type variable may not have both a value restriction (see Type variables with upper bounds) and an upper bound.
Declaring decorators¶
Decorators are typically functions that take a function as an argument and
return another function. Describing this behaviour in terms of types can
be a little tricky; we’ll show how you can use TypeVar and a special
kind of type variable called a parameter specification to do so.
Suppose we have the following decorator, not type annotated yet, that preserves the original function’s signature and merely prints the decorated function’s name:
def printing_decorator(func):
def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
print("Calling", func)
return func(*args, **kwds)
return wrapper
and we use it to decorate function add_forty_two:
# A decorated function.
@printing_decorator
def add_forty_two(value: int) -> int:
return value + 42
a = add_forty_two(3)
Since printing_decorator is not type-annotated, the following won’t get type checked:
reveal_type(a) # Revealed type is "Any"
add_forty_two('foo') # No type checker error :(
This is a sorry state of affairs! If you run with --strict, mypy will
even alert you to this fact:
Untyped decorator makes function "add_forty_two" untyped
Note that class decorators are handled differently than function decorators in mypy: decorating a class does not erase its type, even if the decorator has incomplete type annotations.
Here’s how one could annotate the decorator:
from typing import Any, Callable, TypeVar, cast
F = TypeVar('F', bound=Callable[..., Any])
# A decorator that preserves the signature.
def printing_decorator(func: F) -> F:
def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
print("Calling", func)
return func(*args, **kwds)
return cast(F, wrapper)
@printing_decorator
def add_forty_two(value: int) -> int:
return value + 42
a = add_forty_two(3)
reveal_type(a) # Revealed type is "builtins.int"
add_forty_two('x') # Argument 1 to "add_forty_two" has incompatible type "str"; expected "int"
This still has some shortcomings. First, we need to use the unsafe
cast() to convince mypy that wrapper() has the same
signature as func. See casts.
Second, the wrapper() function is not tightly type checked, although
wrapper functions are typically small enough that this is not a big
problem. This is also the reason for the cast() call in the
return statement in printing_decorator().
However, we can use a parameter specification (ParamSpec),
for a more faithful type annotation:
from typing import Callable, TypeVar
from typing_extensions import ParamSpec
P = ParamSpec('P')
T = TypeVar('T')
def printing_decorator(func: Callable[P, T]) -> Callable[P, T]:
def wrapper(*args: P.args, **kwds: P.kwargs) -> T:
print("Calling", func)
return func(*args, **kwds)
return wrapper
Parameter specifications also allow you to describe decorators that alter the signature of the input function:
from typing import Callable, TypeVar
from typing_extensions import ParamSpec
P = ParamSpec('P')
T = TypeVar('T')
# We reuse 'P' in the return type, but replace 'T' with 'str'
def stringify(func: Callable[P, T]) -> Callable[P, str]:
def wrapper(*args: P.args, **kwds: P.kwargs) -> str:
return str(func(*args, **kwds))
return wrapper
@stringify
def add_forty_two(value: int) -> int:
return value + 42
a = add_forty_two(3)
reveal_type(a) # Revealed type is "builtins.str"
add_forty_two('x') # error: Argument 1 to "add_forty_two" has incompatible type "str"; expected "int"
Or insert an argument:
from typing import Callable, TypeVar
from typing_extensions import Concatenate, ParamSpec
P = ParamSpec('P')
T = TypeVar('T')
def printing_decorator(func: Callable[P, T]) -> Callable[Concatenate[str, P], T]:
def wrapper(msg: str, /, *args: P.args, **kwds: P.kwargs) -> T:
print("Calling", func, "with", msg)
return func(*args, **kwds)
return wrapper
@printing_decorator
def add_forty_two(value: int) -> int:
return value + 42
a = add_forty_two('three', 3)
Decorator factories¶
Functions that take arguments and return a decorator (also called second-order decorators), are similarly supported via generics:
from typing import Any, Callable, TypeVar
F = TypeVar('F', bound=Callable[..., Any])
def route(url: str) -> Callable[[F], F]:
...
@route(url='/')
def index(request: Any) -> str:
return 'Hello world'
Sometimes the same decorator supports both bare calls and calls with arguments. This can be
achieved by combining with @overload:
from typing import Any, Callable, Optional, TypeVar, overload
F = TypeVar('F', bound=Callable[..., Any])
# Bare decorator usage
@overload
def atomic(__func: F) -> F: ...
# Decorator with arguments
@overload
def atomic(*, savepoint: bool = True) -> Callable[[F], F]: ...
# Implementation
def atomic(__func: Optional[Callable[..., Any]] = None, *, savepoint: bool = True):
def decorator(func: Callable[..., Any]):
... # Code goes here
if __func is not None:
return decorator(__func)
else:
return decorator
# Usage
@atomic
def func1() -> None: ...
@atomic(savepoint=False)
def func2() -> None: ...
Generic protocols¶
Mypy supports generic protocols (see also Protocols and structural subtyping). Several
predefined protocols are generic, such as
Iterable[T], and you can define additional generic protocols. Generic
protocols mostly follow the normal rules for generic classes. Example:
from typing import Protocol, TypeVar
T = TypeVar('T')
class Box(Protocol[T]):
content: T
def do_stuff(one: Box[str], other: Box[bytes]) -> None:
...
class StringWrapper:
def __init__(self, content: str) -> None:
self.content = content
class BytesWrapper:
def __init__(self, content: bytes) -> None:
self.content = content
do_stuff(StringWrapper('one'), BytesWrapper(b'other')) # OK
x: Box[float] = ...
y: Box[int] = ...
x = y # Error -- Box is invariant
Note that class ClassName(Protocol[T]) is allowed as a shorthand for
class ClassName(Protocol, Generic[T]), as per PEP 544: Generic protocols,
The main difference between generic protocols and ordinary generic
classes is that mypy checks that the declared variances of generic
type variables in a protocol match how they are used in the protocol
definition. The protocol in this example is rejected, since the type
variable T is used covariantly as a return type, but the type
variable is invariant:
from typing import Protocol, TypeVar
T = TypeVar('T')
class ReadOnlyBox(Protocol[T]): # error: Invariant type variable "T" used in protocol where covariant one is expected
def content(self) -> T: ...
This example correctly uses a covariant type variable:
from typing import Protocol, TypeVar
T_co = TypeVar('T_co', covariant=True)
class ReadOnlyBox(Protocol[T_co]): # OK
def content(self) -> T_co: ...
ax: ReadOnlyBox[float] = ...
ay: ReadOnlyBox[int] = ...
ax = ay # OK -- ReadOnlyBox is covariant
See Variance of generic types for more about variance.
Generic protocols can also be recursive. Example:
T = TypeVar('T')
class Linked(Protocol[T]):
val: T
def next(self) -> 'Linked[T]': ...
class L:
val: int
def next(self) -> 'L': ...
def last(seq: Linked[T]) -> T: ...
result = last(L())
reveal_type(result) # Revealed type is "builtins.int"
Generic type aliases¶
Type aliases can be generic. In this case they can be used in two ways:
Subscripted aliases are equivalent to original types with substituted type
variables, so the number of type arguments must match the number of free type variables
in the generic type alias. Unsubscripted aliases are treated as original types with free
variables replaced with Any. Examples (following PEP 484: Type aliases):
from typing import TypeVar, Iterable, Union, Callable
S = TypeVar('S')
TInt = tuple[int, S]
UInt = Union[S, int]
CBack = Callable[..., S]
def response(query: str) -> UInt[str]: # Same as Union[str, int]
...
def activate(cb: CBack[S]) -> S: # Same as Callable[..., S]
...
table_entry: TInt # Same as tuple[int, Any]
T = TypeVar('T', int, float, complex)
Vec = Iterable[tuple[T, T]]
def inproduct(v: Vec[T]) -> T:
return sum(x*y for x, y in v)
def dilate(v: Vec[T], scale: T) -> Vec[T]:
return ((x * scale, y * scale) for x, y in v)
v1: Vec[int] = [] # Same as Iterable[tuple[int, int]]
v2: Vec = [] # Same as Iterable[tuple[Any, Any]]
v3: Vec[int, int] = [] # Error: Invalid alias, too many type arguments!
Type aliases can be imported from modules just like other names. An alias can also target another alias, although building complex chains of aliases is not recommended – this impedes code readability, thus defeating the purpose of using aliases. Example:
from typing import TypeVar, Generic, Optional
from example1 import AliasType
from example2 import Vec
# AliasType and Vec are type aliases (Vec as defined above)
def fun() -> AliasType:
...
T = TypeVar('T')
class NewVec(Vec[T]):
...
for i, j in NewVec[int]():
...
OIntVec = Optional[Vec[int]]
Using type variable bounds or values in generic aliases has the same effect as in generic classes/functions.
Generic class internals¶
You may wonder what happens at runtime when you index a generic class. Indexing returns a generic alias to the original class that returns instances of the original class on instantiation:
>>> from typing import TypeVar, Generic
>>> T = TypeVar('T')
>>> class Stack(Generic[T]): ...
>>> Stack
__main__.Stack
>>> Stack[int]
__main__.Stack[int]
>>> instance = Stack[int]()
>>> instance.__class__
__main__.Stack
Generic aliases can be instantiated or subclassed, similar to real
classes, but the above examples illustrate that type variables are
erased at runtime. Generic Stack instances are just ordinary
Python objects, and they have no extra runtime overhead or magic due
to being generic, other than a metaclass that overloads the indexing
operator.
Note that in Python 3.8 and lower, the built-in types
list, dict and others do not support indexing.
This is why we have the aliases List,
Dict and so on in the typing
module. Indexing these aliases gives you a generic alias that
resembles generic aliases constructed by directly indexing the target
class in more recent versions of Python:
>>> # Only relevant for Python 3.8 and below
>>> # For Python 3.9 onwards, prefer `list[int]` syntax
>>> from typing import List
>>> List[int]
typing.List[int]
Note that the generic aliases in typing don’t support constructing
instances:
>>> from typing import List
>>> List[int]()
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: Type List cannot be instantiated; use list() instead
More types¶
This section introduces a few additional kinds of types, including NoReturn,
NewType, and types for async code. It also discusses
how to give functions more precise types using overloads. All of these are only
situationally useful, so feel free to skip this section and come back when you
have a need for some of them.
Here’s a quick summary of what’s covered here:
NoReturnlets you tell mypy that a function never returns normally.NewTypelets you define a variant of a type that is treated as a separate type by mypy but is identical to the original type at runtime. For example, you can haveUserIdas a variant ofintthat is just anintat runtime.@overloadlets you define a function that can accept multiple distinct signatures. This is useful if you need to encode a relationship between the arguments and the return type that would be difficult to express normally.Async types let you type check programs using
asyncandawait.
The NoReturn type¶
Mypy provides support for functions that never return. For example, a function that unconditionally raises an exception:
from typing import NoReturn
def stop() -> NoReturn:
raise Exception('no way')
Mypy will ensure that functions annotated as returning NoReturn
truly never return, either implicitly or explicitly. Mypy will also
recognize that the code after calls to such functions is unreachable
and will behave accordingly:
def f(x: int) -> int:
if x == 0:
return x
stop()
return 'whatever works' # No error in an unreachable block
In earlier Python versions you need to install typing_extensions using
pip to use NoReturn in your code. Python 3 command line:
python3 -m pip install --upgrade typing-extensions
NewTypes¶
There are situations where you may want to avoid programming errors by creating simple derived classes that are only used to distinguish certain values from base class instances. Example:
class UserId(int):
pass
def get_by_user_id(user_id: UserId):
...
However, this approach introduces some runtime overhead. To avoid this, the typing
module provides a helper object NewType that creates simple unique types with
almost zero runtime overhead. Mypy will treat the statement
Derived = NewType('Derived', Base) as being roughly equivalent to the following
definition:
class Derived(Base):
def __init__(self, _x: Base) -> None:
...
However, at runtime, NewType('Derived', Base) will return a dummy callable that
simply returns its argument:
def Derived(_x):
return _x
Mypy will require explicit casts from int where UserId is expected, while
implicitly casting from UserId where int is expected. Examples:
from typing import NewType
UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
def name_by_id(user_id: UserId) -> str:
...
UserId('user') # Fails type check
name_by_id(42) # Fails type check
name_by_id(UserId(42)) # OK
num: int = UserId(5) + 1
NewType accepts exactly two arguments. The first argument must be a string literal
containing the name of the new type and must equal the name of the variable to which the new
type is assigned. The second argument must be a properly subclassable class, i.e.,
not a type construct like Union, etc.
The callable returned by NewType accepts only one argument; this is equivalent to
supporting only one constructor accepting an instance of the base class (see above).
Example:
from typing import NewType
class PacketId:
def __init__(self, major: int, minor: int) -> None:
self._major = major
self._minor = minor
TcpPacketId = NewType('TcpPacketId', PacketId)
packet = PacketId(100, 100)
tcp_packet = TcpPacketId(packet) # OK
tcp_packet = TcpPacketId(127, 0) # Fails in type checker and at runtime
You cannot use isinstance() or issubclass() on the object returned by
NewType, nor can you subclass an object returned by NewType.
Note
Unlike type aliases, NewType will create an entirely new and
unique type when used. The intended purpose of NewType is to help you
detect cases where you accidentally mixed together the old base type and the
new derived type.
For example, the following will successfully typecheck when using type aliases:
UserId = int
def name_by_id(user_id: UserId) -> str:
...
name_by_id(3) # ints and UserId are synonymous
But a similar example using NewType will not typecheck:
from typing import NewType
UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
def name_by_id(user_id: UserId) -> str:
...
name_by_id(3) # int is not the same as UserId
Function overloading¶
Sometimes the arguments and types in a function depend on each other
in ways that can’t be captured with a Union. For example, suppose
we want to write a function that can accept x-y coordinates. If we pass
in just a single x-y coordinate, we return a ClickEvent object. However,
if we pass in two x-y coordinates, we return a DragEvent object.
Our first attempt at writing this function might look like this:
from typing import Union, Optional
def mouse_event(x1: int,
y1: int,
x2: Optional[int] = None,
y2: Optional[int] = None) -> Union[ClickEvent, DragEvent]:
if x2 is None and y2 is None:
return ClickEvent(x1, y1)
elif x2 is not None and y2 is not None:
return DragEvent(x1, y1, x2, y2)
else:
raise TypeError("Bad arguments")
While this function signature works, it’s too loose: it implies mouse_event
could return either object regardless of the number of arguments
we pass in. It also does not prohibit a caller from passing in the wrong
number of ints: mypy would treat calls like mouse_event(1, 2, 20) as being
valid, for example.
We can do better by using overloading which lets us give the same function multiple type annotations (signatures) to more accurately describe the function’s behavior:
from typing import Union, overload
# Overload *variants* for 'mouse_event'.
# These variants give extra information to the type checker.
# They are ignored at runtime.
@overload
def mouse_event(x1: int, y1: int) -> ClickEvent: ...
@overload
def mouse_event(x1: int, y1: int, x2: int, y2: int) -> DragEvent: ...
# The actual *implementation* of 'mouse_event'.
# The implementation contains the actual runtime logic.
#
# It may or may not have type hints. If it does, mypy
# will check the body of the implementation against the
# type hints.
#
# Mypy will also check and make sure the signature is
# consistent with the provided variants.
def mouse_event(x1: int,
y1: int,
x2: Optional[int] = None,
y2: Optional[int] = None) -> Union[ClickEvent, DragEvent]:
if x2 is None and y2 is None:
return ClickEvent(x1, y1)
elif x2 is not None and y2 is not None:
return DragEvent(x1, y1, x2, y2)
else:
raise TypeError("Bad arguments")
This allows mypy to understand calls to mouse_event much more precisely.
For example, mypy will understand that mouse_event(5, 25) will
always have a return type of ClickEvent and will report errors for
calls like mouse_event(5, 25, 2).
As another example, suppose we want to write a custom container class that
implements the __getitem__ method ([] bracket indexing). If this
method receives an integer we return a single item. If it receives a
slice, we return a Sequence of items.
We can precisely encode this relationship between the argument and the return type by using overloads like so:
from typing import Sequence, TypeVar, Union, overload
T = TypeVar('T')
class MyList(Sequence[T]):
@overload
def __getitem__(self, index: int) -> T: ...
@overload
def __getitem__(self, index: slice) -> Sequence[T]: ...
def __getitem__(self, index: Union[int, slice]) -> Union[T, Sequence[T]]:
if isinstance(index, int):
# Return a T here
elif isinstance(index, slice):
# Return a sequence of Ts here
else:
raise TypeError(...)
Note
If you just need to constrain a type variable to certain types or subtypes, you can use a value restriction.
The default values of a function’s arguments don’t affect its signature – only
the absence or presence of a default value does. So in order to reduce
redundancy, it’s possible to replace default values in overload definitions with
... as a placeholder:
from typing import overload
class M: ...
@overload
def get_model(model_or_pk: M, flag: bool = ...) -> M: ...
@overload
def get_model(model_or_pk: int, flag: bool = ...) -> M | None: ...
def get_model(model_or_pk: int | M, flag: bool = True) -> M | None:
...
Runtime behavior¶
An overloaded function must consist of two or more overload variants followed by an implementation. The variants and the implementations must be adjacent in the code: think of them as one indivisible unit.
The variant bodies must all be empty; only the implementation is allowed to contain code. This is because at runtime, the variants are completely ignored: they’re overridden by the final implementation function.
This means that an overloaded function is still an ordinary Python
function! There is no automatic dispatch handling and you must manually
handle the different types in the implementation (e.g. by using
if statements and isinstance checks).
If you are adding an overload within a stub file, the implementation function should be omitted: stubs do not contain runtime logic.
Note
While we can leave the variant body empty using the pass keyword,
the more common convention is to instead use the ellipsis (...) literal.
Type checking calls to overloads¶
When you call an overloaded function, mypy will infer the correct return
type by picking the best matching variant, after taking into consideration
both the argument types and arity. However, a call is never type
checked against the implementation. This is why mypy will report calls
like mouse_event(5, 25, 3) as being invalid even though it matches the
implementation signature.
If there are multiple equally good matching variants, mypy will select the variant that was defined first. For example, consider the following program:
# For Python 3.8 and below you must use `typing.List` instead of `list`. e.g.
# from typing import List
from typing import overload
@overload
def summarize(data: list[int]) -> float: ...
@overload
def summarize(data: list[str]) -> str: ...
def summarize(data):
if not data:
return 0.0
elif isinstance(data[0], int):
# Do int specific code
else:
# Do str-specific code
# What is the type of 'output'? float or str?
output = summarize([])
The summarize([]) call matches both variants: an empty list could
be either a list[int] or a list[str]. In this case, mypy
will break the tie by picking the first matching variant: output
will have an inferred type of float. The implementor is responsible
for making sure summarize breaks ties in the same way at runtime.
However, there are two exceptions to the “pick the first match” rule.
First, if multiple variants match due to an argument being of type
Any, mypy will make the inferred type also be Any:
dynamic_var: Any = some_dynamic_function()
# output2 is of type 'Any'
output2 = summarize(dynamic_var)
Second, if multiple variants match due to one or more of the arguments being a union, mypy will make the inferred type be the union of the matching variant returns:
some_list: Union[list[int], list[str]]
# output3 is of type 'Union[float, str]'
output3 = summarize(some_list)
Note
Due to the “pick the first match” rule, changing the order of your overload variants can change how mypy type checks your program.
To minimize potential issues, we recommend that you:
Make sure your overload variants are listed in the same order as the runtime checks (e.g.
isinstancechecks) in your implementation.Order your variants and runtime checks from most to least specific. (See the following section for an example).
Type checking the variants¶
Mypy will perform several checks on your overload variant definitions
to ensure they behave as expected. First, mypy will check and make sure
that no overload variant is shadowing a subsequent one. For example,
consider the following function which adds together two Expression
objects, and contains a special-case to handle receiving two Literal
types:
from typing import overload, Union
class Expression:
# ...snip...
class Literal(Expression):
# ...snip...
# Warning -- the first overload variant shadows the second!
@overload
def add(left: Expression, right: Expression) -> Expression: ...
@overload
def add(left: Literal, right: Literal) -> Literal: ...
def add(left: Expression, right: Expression) -> Expression:
# ...snip...
While this code snippet is technically type-safe, it does contain an
anti-pattern: the second variant will never be selected! If we try calling
add(Literal(3), Literal(4)), mypy will always pick the first variant
and evaluate the function call to be of type Expression, not Literal.
This is because Literal is a subtype of Expression, which means
the “pick the first match” rule will always halt after considering the
first overload.
Because having an overload variant that can never be matched is almost certainly a mistake, mypy will report an error. To fix the error, we can either 1) delete the second overload or 2) swap the order of the overloads:
# Everything is ok now -- the variants are correctly ordered
# from most to least specific.
@overload
def add(left: Literal, right: Literal) -> Literal: ...
@overload
def add(left: Expression, right: Expression) -> Expression: ...
def add(left: Expression, right: Expression) -> Expression:
# ...snip...
Mypy will also type check the different variants and flag any overloads that have inherently unsafely overlapping variants. For example, consider the following unsafe overload definition:
from typing import overload, Union
@overload
def unsafe_func(x: int) -> int: ...
@overload
def unsafe_func(x: object) -> str: ...
def unsafe_func(x: object) -> Union[int, str]:
if isinstance(x, int):
return 42
else:
return "some string"
On the surface, this function definition appears to be fine. However, it will result in a discrepancy between the inferred type and the actual runtime type when we try using it like so:
some_obj: object = 42
unsafe_func(some_obj) + " danger danger" # Type checks, yet crashes at runtime!
Since some_obj is of type object, mypy will decide that unsafe_func
must return something of type str and concludes the above will type check.
But in reality, unsafe_func will return an int, causing the code to crash
at runtime!
To prevent these kinds of issues, mypy will detect and prohibit inherently unsafely overlapping overloads on a best-effort basis. Two variants are considered unsafely overlapping when both of the following are true:
All of the arguments of the first variant are potentially compatible with the second.
The return type of the first variant is not compatible with (e.g. is not a subtype of) the second.
So in this example, the int argument in the first variant is a subtype of
the object argument in the second, yet the int return type is not a subtype of
str. Both conditions are true, so mypy will correctly flag unsafe_func as
being unsafe.
Note that in cases where you ignore the overlapping overload error, mypy will usually still infer the types you expect at callsites.
However, mypy will not detect all unsafe uses of overloads. For example,
suppose we modify the above snippet so it calls summarize instead of
unsafe_func:
some_list: list[str] = []
summarize(some_list) + "danger danger" # Type safe, yet crashes at runtime!
We run into a similar issue here. This program type checks if we look just at the
annotations on the overloads. But since summarize(...) is designed to be biased
towards returning a float when it receives an empty list, this program will actually
crash during runtime.
The reason mypy does not flag definitions like summarize as being potentially
unsafe is because if it did, it would be extremely difficult to write a safe
overload. For example, suppose we define an overload with two variants that accept
types A and B respectively. Even if those two types were completely unrelated,
the user could still potentially trigger a runtime error similar to the ones above by
passing in a value of some third type C that inherits from both A and B.
Thankfully, these types of situations are relatively rare. What this does mean, however, is that you should exercise caution when designing or using an overloaded function that can potentially receive values that are an instance of two seemingly unrelated types.
Type checking the implementation¶
The body of an implementation is type-checked against the
type hints provided on the implementation. For example, in the
MyList example up above, the code in the body is checked with
argument list index: Union[int, slice] and a return type of
Union[T, Sequence[T]]. If there are no annotations on the
implementation, then the body is not type checked. If you want to
force mypy to check the body anyways, use the --check-untyped-defs
flag (more details here).
The variants must also also be compatible with the implementation
type hints. In the MyList example, mypy will check that the
parameter type int and the return type T are compatible with
Union[int, slice] and Union[T, Sequence] for the
first variant. For the second variant it verifies the parameter
type slice and the return type Sequence[T] are compatible
with Union[int, slice] and Union[T, Sequence].
Note
The overload semantics documented above are new as of mypy 0.620.
Previously, mypy used to perform type erasure on all overload variants. For
example, the summarize example from the previous section used to be
illegal because list[str] and list[int] both erased to just list[Any].
This restriction was removed in mypy 0.620.
Mypy also previously used to select the best matching variant using a different
algorithm. If this algorithm failed to find a match, it would default to returning
Any. The new algorithm uses the “pick the first match” rule and will fall back
to returning Any only if the input arguments also contain Any.
Conditional overloads¶
Sometimes it is useful to define overloads conditionally. Common use cases include types that are unavailable at runtime or that only exist in a certain Python version. All existing overload rules still apply. For example, there must be at least two overloads.
Note
Mypy can only infer a limited number of conditions.
Supported ones currently include TYPE_CHECKING, MYPY,
Python version and system platform checks, --always-true,
and --always-false values.
from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, overload
if TYPE_CHECKING:
class A: ...
class B: ...
if TYPE_CHECKING:
@overload
def func(var: A) -> A: ...
@overload
def func(var: B) -> B: ...
def func(var: Any) -> Any:
return var
reveal_type(func(A())) # Revealed type is "A"
# flags: --python-version 3.10
import sys
from typing import Any, overload
class A: ...
class B: ...
class C: ...
class D: ...
if sys.version_info < (3, 7):
@overload
def func(var: A) -> A: ...
elif sys.version_info >= (3, 10):
@overload
def func(var: B) -> B: ...
else:
@overload
def func(var: C) -> C: ...
@overload
def func(var: D) -> D: ...
def func(var: Any) -> Any:
return var
reveal_type(func(B())) # Revealed type is "B"
reveal_type(func(C())) # No overload variant of "func" matches argument type "C"
# Possible overload variants:
# def func(var: B) -> B
# def func(var: D) -> D
# Revealed type is "Any"
Note
In the last example, mypy is executed with
--python-version 3.10.
Therefore, the condition sys.version_info >= (3, 10) will match and
the overload for B will be added.
The overloads for A and C are ignored!
The overload for D is not defined conditionally and thus is also added.
When mypy cannot infer a condition to be always True or always False,
an error is emitted.
from typing import Any, overload
class A: ...
class B: ...
def g(bool_var: bool) -> None:
if bool_var: # Condition can't be inferred, unable to merge overloads
@overload
def func(var: A) -> A: ...
@overload
def func(var: B) -> B: ...
def func(var: Any) -> Any: ...
reveal_type(func(A())) # Revealed type is "Any"
Advanced uses of self-types¶
Normally, mypy doesn’t require annotations for the first arguments of instance and class methods. However, they may be needed to have more precise static typing for certain programming patterns.
Restricted methods in generic classes¶
In generic classes some methods may be allowed to be called only for certain values of type arguments:
T = TypeVar('T')
class Tag(Generic[T]):
item: T
def uppercase_item(self: Tag[str]) -> str:
return self.item.upper()
def label(ti: Tag[int], ts: Tag[str]) -> None:
ti.uppercase_item() # E: Invalid self argument "Tag[int]" to attribute function
# "uppercase_item" with type "Callable[[Tag[str]], str]"
ts.uppercase_item() # This is OK
This pattern also allows matching on nested types in situations where the type argument is itself generic:
T = TypeVar('T', covariant=True)
S = TypeVar('S')
class Storage(Generic[T]):
def __init__(self, content: T) -> None:
self.content = content
def first_chunk(self: Storage[Sequence[S]]) -> S:
return self.content[0]
page: Storage[list[str]]
page.first_chunk() # OK, type is "str"
Storage(0).first_chunk() # Error: Invalid self argument "Storage[int]" to attribute function
# "first_chunk" with type "Callable[[Storage[Sequence[S]]], S]"
Finally, one can use overloads on self-type to express precise types of some tricky methods:
T = TypeVar('T')
class Tag(Generic[T]):
@overload
def export(self: Tag[str]) -> str: ...
@overload
def export(self, converter: Callable[[T], str]) -> str: ...
def export(self, converter=None):
if isinstance(self.item, str):
return self.item
return converter(self.item)
In particular, an __init__() method overloaded on self-type
may be useful to annotate generic class constructors where type arguments
depend on constructor parameters in a non-trivial way, see e.g. Popen.
Mixin classes¶
Using host class protocol as a self-type in mixin methods allows more code re-usability for static typing of mixin classes. For example, one can define a protocol that defines common functionality for host classes instead of adding required abstract methods to every mixin:
class Lockable(Protocol):
@property
def lock(self) -> Lock: ...
class AtomicCloseMixin:
def atomic_close(self: Lockable) -> int:
with self.lock:
# perform actions
class AtomicOpenMixin:
def atomic_open(self: Lockable) -> int:
with self.lock:
# perform actions
class File(AtomicCloseMixin, AtomicOpenMixin):
def __init__(self) -> None:
self.lock = Lock()
class Bad(AtomicCloseMixin):
pass
f = File()
b: Bad
f.atomic_close() # OK
b.atomic_close() # Error: Invalid self type for "atomic_close"
Note that the explicit self-type is required to be a protocol whenever it is not a supertype of the current class. In this case mypy will check the validity of the self-type only at the call site.
Precise typing of alternative constructors¶
Some classes may define alternative constructors. If these classes are generic, self-type allows giving them precise signatures:
T = TypeVar('T')
class Base(Generic[T]):
Q = TypeVar('Q', bound='Base[T]')
def __init__(self, item: T) -> None:
self.item = item
@classmethod
def make_pair(cls: Type[Q], item: T) -> tuple[Q, Q]:
return cls(item), cls(item)
class Sub(Base[T]):
...
pair = Sub.make_pair('yes') # Type is "tuple[Sub[str], Sub[str]]"
bad = Sub[int].make_pair('no') # Error: Argument 1 to "make_pair" of "Base"
# has incompatible type "str"; expected "int"
Typing async/await¶
Mypy lets you type coroutines that use the async/await syntax.
For more information regarding coroutines, see PEP 492 and the
asyncio documentation.
Functions defined using async def are typed similar to normal functions.
The return type annotation should be the same as the type of the value you
expect to get back when await-ing the coroutine.
import asyncio
async def format_string(tag: str, count: int) -> str:
return f'T-minus {count} ({tag})'
async def countdown(tag: str, count: int) -> str:
while count > 0:
my_str = await format_string(tag, count) # type is inferred to be str
print(my_str)
await asyncio.sleep(0.1)
count -= 1
return "Blastoff!"
asyncio.run(countdown("Millennium Falcon", 5))
The result of calling an async def function without awaiting will
automatically be inferred to be a value of type
Coroutine[Any, Any, T], which is a subtype of
Awaitable[T]:
my_coroutine = countdown("Millennium Falcon", 5)
reveal_type(my_coroutine) # Revealed type is "typing.Coroutine[Any, Any, builtins.str]"
Asynchronous iterators¶
If you have an asynchronous iterator, you can use the
AsyncIterator type in your annotations:
from typing import Optional, AsyncIterator
import asyncio
class arange:
def __init__(self, start: int, stop: int, step: int) -> None:
self.start = start
self.stop = stop
self.step = step
self.count = start - step
def __aiter__(self) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
return self
async def __anext__(self) -> int:
self.count += self.step
if self.count == self.stop:
raise StopAsyncIteration
else:
return self.count
async def run_countdown(tag: str, countdown: AsyncIterator[int]) -> str:
async for i in countdown:
print(f'T-minus {i} ({tag})')
await asyncio.sleep(0.1)
return "Blastoff!"
asyncio.run(run_countdown("Serenity", arange(5, 0, -1)))
Async generators (introduced in PEP 525) are an easy way to create async iterators:
from typing import AsyncGenerator, Optional
import asyncio
# Could also type this as returning AsyncIterator[int]
async def arange(start: int, stop: int, step: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int, None]:
current = start
while (step > 0 and current < stop) or (step < 0 and current > stop):
yield current
current += step
asyncio.run(run_countdown("Battlestar Galactica", arange(5, 0, -1)))
One common confusion is that the presence of a yield statement in an
async def function has an effect on the type of the function:
from typing import AsyncIterator
async def arange(stop: int) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
# When called, arange gives you an async iterator
# Equivalent to Callable[[int], AsyncIterator[int]]
i = 0
while i < stop:
yield i
i += 1
async def coroutine(stop: int) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
# When called, coroutine gives you something you can await to get an async iterator
# Equivalent to Callable[[int], Coroutine[Any, Any, AsyncIterator[int]]]
return arange(stop)
async def main() -> None:
reveal_type(arange(5)) # Revealed type is "typing.AsyncIterator[builtins.int]"
reveal_type(coroutine(5)) # Revealed type is "typing.Coroutine[Any, Any, typing.AsyncIterator[builtins.int]]"
await arange(5) # Error: Incompatible types in "await" (actual type "AsyncIterator[int]", expected type "Awaitable[Any]")
reveal_type(await coroutine(5)) # Revealed type is "typing.AsyncIterator[builtins.int]"
This can sometimes come up when trying to define base classes, Protocols or overloads:
from typing import AsyncIterator, Protocol, overload
class LauncherIncorrect(Protocol):
# Because launch does not have yield, this has type
# Callable[[], Coroutine[Any, Any, AsyncIterator[int]]]
# instead of
# Callable[[], AsyncIterator[int]]
async def launch(self) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
raise NotImplementedError
class LauncherCorrect(Protocol):
def launch(self) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
raise NotImplementedError
class LauncherAlsoCorrect(Protocol):
async def launch(self) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
raise NotImplementedError
if False:
yield 0
# The type of the overloads is independent of the implementation.
# In particular, their type is not affected by whether or not the
# implementation contains a `yield`.
# Use of `def`` makes it clear the type is Callable[..., AsyncIterator[int]],
# whereas with `async def` it would be Callable[..., Coroutine[Any, Any, AsyncIterator[int]]]
@overload
def launch(*, count: int = ...) -> AsyncIterator[int]: ...
@overload
def launch(*, time: float = ...) -> AsyncIterator[int]: ...
async def launch(*, count: int = 0, time: float = 0) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
# The implementation of launch is an async generator and contains a yield
yield 0
Literal types and Enums¶
Literal types¶
Literal types let you indicate that an expression is equal to some specific
primitive value. For example, if we annotate a variable with type Literal["foo"],
mypy will understand that variable is not only of type str, but is also
equal to specifically the string "foo".
This feature is primarily useful when annotating functions that behave
differently based on the exact value the caller provides. For example,
suppose we have a function fetch_data(...) that returns bytes if the
first argument is True, and str if it’s False. We can construct a
precise type signature for this function using Literal[...] and overloads:
from typing import overload, Union, Literal
# The first two overloads use Literal[...] so we can
# have precise return types:
@overload
def fetch_data(raw: Literal[True]) -> bytes: ...
@overload
def fetch_data(raw: Literal[False]) -> str: ...
# The last overload is a fallback in case the caller
# provides a regular bool:
@overload
def fetch_data(raw: bool) -> Union[bytes, str]: ...
def fetch_data(raw: bool) -> Union[bytes, str]:
# Implementation is omitted
...
reveal_type(fetch_data(True)) # Revealed type is "bytes"
reveal_type(fetch_data(False)) # Revealed type is "str"
# Variables declared without annotations will continue to have an
# inferred type of 'bool'.
variable = True
reveal_type(fetch_data(variable)) # Revealed type is "Union[bytes, str]"
Note
The examples in this page import Literal as well as Final and
TypedDict from the typing module. These types were added to
typing in Python 3.8, but are also available for use in Python
3.4 - 3.7 via the typing_extensions package.
Parameterizing Literals¶
Literal types may contain one or more literal bools, ints, strs, bytes, and
enum values. However, literal types cannot contain arbitrary expressions:
types like Literal[my_string.trim()], Literal[x > 3], or Literal[3j + 4]
are all illegal.
Literals containing two or more values are equivalent to the union of those values.
So, Literal[-3, b"foo", MyEnum.A] is equivalent to
Union[Literal[-3], Literal[b"foo"], Literal[MyEnum.A]]. This makes writing more
complex types involving literals a little more convenient.
Literal types may also contain None. Mypy will treat Literal[None] as being
equivalent to just None. This means that Literal[4, None],
Union[Literal[4], None], and Optional[Literal[4]] are all equivalent.
Literals may also contain aliases to other literal types. For example, the following program is legal:
PrimaryColors = Literal["red", "blue", "yellow"]
SecondaryColors = Literal["purple", "green", "orange"]
AllowedColors = Literal[PrimaryColors, SecondaryColors]
def paint(color: AllowedColors) -> None: ...
paint("red") # Type checks!
paint("turquoise") # Does not type check
Literals may not contain any other kind of type or expression. This means doing
Literal[my_instance], Literal[Any], Literal[3.14], or
Literal[{"foo": 2, "bar": 5}] are all illegal.
Declaring literal variables¶
You must explicitly add an annotation to a variable to declare that it has a literal type:
a: Literal[19] = 19
reveal_type(a) # Revealed type is "Literal[19]"
In order to preserve backwards-compatibility, variables without this annotation are not assumed to be literals:
b = 19
reveal_type(b) # Revealed type is "int"
If you find repeating the value of the variable in the type hint to be tedious,
you can instead change the variable to be Final (see Final names, methods and classes):
from typing import Final, Literal
def expects_literal(x: Literal[19]) -> None: pass
c: Final = 19
reveal_type(c) # Revealed type is "Literal[19]?"
expects_literal(c) # ...and this type checks!
If you do not provide an explicit type in the Final, the type of c becomes
context-sensitive: mypy will basically try “substituting” the original assigned
value whenever it’s used before performing type checking. This is why the revealed
type of c is Literal[19]?: the question mark at the end reflects this
context-sensitive nature.
For example, mypy will type check the above program almost as if it were written like so:
from typing import Final, Literal
def expects_literal(x: Literal[19]) -> None: pass
reveal_type(19)
expects_literal(19)
This means that while changing a variable to be Final is not quite the same thing
as adding an explicit Literal[...] annotation, it often leads to the same effect
in practice.
The main cases where the behavior of context-sensitive vs true literal types differ are
when you try using those types in places that are not explicitly expecting a Literal[...].
For example, compare and contrast what happens when you try appending these types to a list:
from typing import Final, Literal
a: Final = 19
b: Literal[19] = 19
# Mypy will choose to infer list[int] here.
list_of_ints = []
list_of_ints.append(a)
reveal_type(list_of_ints) # Revealed type is "list[int]"
# But if the variable you're appending is an explicit Literal, mypy
# will infer list[Literal[19]].
list_of_lits = []
list_of_lits.append(b)
reveal_type(list_of_lits) # Revealed type is "list[Literal[19]]"
Intelligent indexing¶
We can use Literal types to more precisely index into structured heterogeneous types such as tuples, NamedTuples, and TypedDicts. This feature is known as intelligent indexing.
For example, when we index into a tuple using some int, the inferred type is normally the union of the tuple item types. However, if we want just the type corresponding to some particular index, we can use Literal types like so:
from typing import TypedDict
tup = ("foo", 3.4)
# Indexing with an int literal gives us the exact type for that index
reveal_type(tup[0]) # Revealed type is "str"
# But what if we want the index to be a variable? Normally mypy won't
# know exactly what the index is and so will return a less precise type:
int_index = 0
reveal_type(tup[int_index]) # Revealed type is "Union[str, float]"
# But if we use either Literal types or a Final int, we can gain back
# the precision we originally had:
lit_index: Literal[0] = 0
fin_index: Final = 0
reveal_type(tup[lit_index]) # Revealed type is "str"
reveal_type(tup[fin_index]) # Revealed type is "str"
# We can do the same thing with with TypedDict and str keys:
class MyDict(TypedDict):
name: str
main_id: int
backup_id: int
d: MyDict = {"name": "Saanvi", "main_id": 111, "backup_id": 222}
name_key: Final = "name"
reveal_type(d[name_key]) # Revealed type is "str"
# You can also index using unions of literals
id_key: Literal["main_id", "backup_id"]
reveal_type(d[id_key]) # Revealed type is "int"
Tagged unions¶
When you have a union of types, you can normally discriminate between each type
in the union by using isinstance checks. For example, if you had a variable x of
type Union[int, str], you could write some code that runs only if x is an int
by doing if isinstance(x, int): ....
However, it is not always possible or convenient to do this. For example, it is not
possible to use isinstance to distinguish between two different TypedDicts since
at runtime, your variable will simply be just a dict.
Instead, what you can do is label or tag your TypedDicts with a distinct Literal type. Then, you can discriminate between each kind of TypedDict by checking the label:
from typing import Literal, TypedDict, Union
class NewJobEvent(TypedDict):
tag: Literal["new-job"]
job_name: str
config_file_path: str
class CancelJobEvent(TypedDict):
tag: Literal["cancel-job"]
job_id: int
Event = Union[NewJobEvent, CancelJobEvent]
def process_event(event: Event) -> None:
# Since we made sure both TypedDicts have a key named 'tag', it's
# safe to do 'event["tag"]'. This expression normally has the type
# Literal["new-job", "cancel-job"], but the check below will narrow
# the type to either Literal["new-job"] or Literal["cancel-job"].
#
# This in turns narrows the type of 'event' to either NewJobEvent
# or CancelJobEvent.
if event["tag"] == "new-job":
print(event["job_name"])
else:
print(event["job_id"])
While this feature is mostly useful when working with TypedDicts, you can also use the same technique with regular objects, tuples, or namedtuples.
Similarly, tags do not need to be specifically str Literals: they can be any type
you can normally narrow within if statements and the like. For example, you
could have your tags be int or Enum Literals or even regular classes you narrow
using isinstance():
from typing import Generic, TypeVar, Union
T = TypeVar('T')
class Wrapper(Generic[T]):
def __init__(self, inner: T) -> None:
self.inner = inner
def process(w: Union[Wrapper[int], Wrapper[str]]) -> None:
# Doing `if isinstance(w, Wrapper[int])` does not work: isinstance requires
# that the second argument always be an *erased* type, with no generics.
# This is because generics are a typing-only concept and do not exist at
# runtime in a way `isinstance` can always check.
#
# However, we can side-step this by checking the type of `w.inner` to
# narrow `w` itself:
if isinstance(w.inner, int):
reveal_type(w) # Revealed type is "Wrapper[int]"
else:
reveal_type(w) # Revealed type is "Wrapper[str]"
This feature is sometimes called “sum types” or “discriminated union types” in other programming languages.
Exhaustiveness checking¶
You may want to check that some code covers all possible
Literal or Enum cases. Example:
from typing import Literal
PossibleValues = Literal['one', 'two']
def validate(x: PossibleValues) -> bool:
if x == 'one':
return True
elif x == 'two':
return False
raise ValueError(f'Invalid value: {x}')
assert validate('one') is True
assert validate('two') is False
In the code above, it’s easy to make a mistake. You can
add a new literal value to PossibleValues but forget
to handle it in the validate function:
PossibleValues = Literal['one', 'two', 'three']
Mypy won’t catch that 'three' is not covered. If you want mypy to
perform an exhaustiveness check, you need to update your code to use an
assert_never() check:
from typing import Literal, NoReturn
from typing_extensions import assert_never
PossibleValues = Literal['one', 'two']
def validate(x: PossibleValues) -> bool:
if x == 'one':
return True
elif x == 'two':
return False
assert_never(x)
Now if you add a new value to PossibleValues but don’t update validate,
mypy will spot the error:
PossibleValues = Literal['one', 'two', 'three']
def validate(x: PossibleValues) -> bool:
if x == 'one':
return True
elif x == 'two':
return False
# Error: Argument 1 to "assert_never" has incompatible type "Literal['three']";
# expected "NoReturn"
assert_never(x)
If runtime checking against unexpected values is not needed, you can
leave out the assert_never call in the above example, and mypy
will still generate an error about function validate returning
without a value:
PossibleValues = Literal['one', 'two', 'three']
# Error: Missing return statement
def validate(x: PossibleValues) -> bool:
if x == 'one':
return True
elif x == 'two':
return False
Exhaustiveness checking is also supported for match statements (Python 3.10 and later):
def validate(x: PossibleValues) -> bool:
match x:
case 'one':
return True
case 'two':
return False
assert_never(x)
Limitations¶
Mypy will not understand expressions that use variables of type Literal[..]
on a deep level. For example, if you have a variable a of type Literal[3]
and another variable b of type Literal[5], mypy will infer that
a + b has type int, not type Literal[8].
The basic rule is that literal types are treated as just regular subtypes of
whatever type the parameter has. For example, Literal[3] is treated as a
subtype of int and so will inherit all of int’s methods directly. This
means that Literal[3].__add__ accepts the same arguments and has the same
return type as int.__add__.
Enums¶
Mypy has special support for enum.Enum and its subclasses:
enum.IntEnum, enum.Flag, enum.IntFlag,
and enum.StrEnum.
from enum import Enum
class Direction(Enum):
up = 'up'
down = 'down'
reveal_type(Direction.up) # Revealed type is "Literal[Direction.up]?"
reveal_type(Direction.down) # Revealed type is "Literal[Direction.down]?"
You can use enums to annotate types as you would expect:
class Movement:
def __init__(self, direction: Direction, speed: float) -> None:
self.direction = direction
self.speed = speed
Movement(Direction.up, 5.0) # ok
Movement('up', 5.0) # E: Argument 1 to "Movement" has incompatible type "str"; expected "Direction"
Exhaustiveness checking¶
Similar to Literal types, Enum supports exhaustiveness checking.
Let’s start with a definition:
from enum import Enum
from typing import NoReturn
from typing_extensions import assert_never
class Direction(Enum):
up = 'up'
down = 'down'
Now, let’s use an exhaustiveness check:
def choose_direction(direction: Direction) -> None:
if direction is Direction.up:
reveal_type(direction) # N: Revealed type is "Literal[Direction.up]"
print('Going up!')
return
elif direction is Direction.down:
print('Down')
return
# This line is never reached
assert_never(direction)
If we forget to handle one of the cases, mypy will generate an error:
def choose_direction(direction: Direction) -> None:
if direction == Direction.up:
print('Going up!')
return
assert_never(direction) # E: Argument 1 to "assert_never" has incompatible type "Direction"; expected "NoReturn"
Exhaustiveness checking is also supported for match statements (Python 3.10 and later).
Extra Enum checks¶
Mypy also tries to support special features of Enum
the same way Python’s runtime does:
Any
Enumclass with values is implicitly final. This is what happens in CPython:>>> class AllDirection(Direction): ... left = 'left' ... right = 'right' Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: AllDirection: cannot extend enumeration 'Direction'
Mypy also catches this error:
class AllDirection(Direction): # E: Cannot inherit from final class "Direction" left = 'left' right = 'right'
All
Enumfields are implicitlyfinalas well.Direction.up = '^' # E: Cannot assign to final attribute "up"
All field names are checked to be unique.
class Some(Enum): x = 1 x = 2 # E: Attempted to reuse member name "x" in Enum definition "Some"
Base classes have no conflicts and mixin types are correct.
class WrongEnum(str, int, enum.Enum): # E: Only a single data type mixin is allowed for Enum subtypes, found extra "int" ... class MixinAfterEnum(enum.Enum, Mixin): # E: No base classes are allowed after "enum.Enum" ...
TypedDict¶
Python programs often use dictionaries with string keys to represent objects.
TypedDict lets you give precise types for dictionaries that represent
objects with a fixed schema, such as {'id': 1, 'items': ['x']}.
Here is a typical example:
movie = {'name': 'Blade Runner', 'year': 1982}
Only a fixed set of string keys is expected ('name' and
'year' above), and each key has an independent value type (str
for 'name' and int for 'year' above). We’ve previously
seen the dict[K, V] type, which lets you declare uniform
dictionary types, where every value has the same type, and arbitrary keys
are supported. This is clearly not a good fit for
movie above. Instead, you can use a TypedDict to give a precise
type for objects like movie, where the type of each
dictionary value depends on the key:
from typing import TypedDict
Movie = TypedDict('Movie', {'name': str, 'year': int})
movie: Movie = {'name': 'Blade Runner', 'year': 1982}
Movie is a TypedDict type with two items: 'name' (with type str)
and 'year' (with type int). Note that we used an explicit type
annotation for the movie variable. This type annotation is
important – without it, mypy will try to infer a regular, uniform
dict type for movie, which is not what we want here.
Note
If you pass a TypedDict object as an argument to a function, no
type annotation is usually necessary since mypy can infer the
desired type based on the declared argument type. Also, if an
assignment target has been previously defined, and it has a
TypedDict type, mypy will treat the assigned value as a TypedDict,
not dict.
Now mypy will recognize these as valid:
name = movie['name'] # Okay; type of name is str
year = movie['year'] # Okay; type of year is int
Mypy will detect an invalid key as an error:
director = movie['director'] # Error: 'director' is not a valid key
Mypy will also reject a runtime-computed expression as a key, as
it can’t verify that it’s a valid key. You can only use string
literals as TypedDict keys.
The TypedDict type object can also act as a constructor. It
returns a normal dict object at runtime – a TypedDict does
not define a new runtime type:
toy_story = Movie(name='Toy Story', year=1995)
This is equivalent to just constructing a dictionary directly using
{ ... } or dict(key=value, ...). The constructor form is
sometimes convenient, since it can be used without a type annotation,
and it also makes the type of the object explicit.
Like all types, TypedDicts can be used as components to build
arbitrarily complex types. For example, you can define nested
TypedDicts and containers with TypedDict items.
Unlike most other types, mypy uses structural compatibility checking
(or structural subtyping) with TypedDicts. A TypedDict object with
extra items is compatible with (a subtype of) a narrower
TypedDict, assuming item types are compatible (totality also affects
subtyping, as discussed below).
A TypedDict object is not a subtype of the regular dict[...]
type (and vice versa), since dict allows arbitrary keys to be
added and removed, unlike TypedDict. However, any TypedDict object is
a subtype of (that is, compatible with) Mapping[str, object], since
Mapping only provides read-only access to the dictionary items:
def print_typed_dict(obj: Mapping[str, object]) -> None:
for key, value in obj.items():
print(f'{key}: {value}')
print_typed_dict(Movie(name='Toy Story', year=1995)) # OK
Note
Unless you are on Python 3.8 or newer (where TypedDict is available in
standard library typing module) you need to install typing_extensions
using pip to use TypedDict:
python3 -m pip install --upgrade typing-extensions
Totality¶
By default mypy ensures that a TypedDict object has all the specified
keys. This will be flagged as an error:
# Error: 'year' missing
toy_story: Movie = {'name': 'Toy Story'}
Sometimes you want to allow keys to be left out when creating a
TypedDict object. You can provide the total=False argument to
TypedDict(...) to achieve this:
GuiOptions = TypedDict(
'GuiOptions', {'language': str, 'color': str}, total=False)
options: GuiOptions = {} # Okay
options['language'] = 'en'
You may need to use get() to access items of a partial (non-total)
TypedDict, since indexing using [] could fail at runtime.
However, mypy still lets use [] with a partial TypedDict – you
just need to be careful with it, as it could result in a KeyError.
Requiring get() everywhere would be too cumbersome. (Note that you
are free to use get() with total TypedDicts as well.)
Keys that aren’t required are shown with a ? in error messages:
# Revealed type is "TypedDict('GuiOptions', {'language'?: builtins.str,
# 'color'?: builtins.str})"
reveal_type(options)
Totality also affects structural compatibility. You can’t use a partial
TypedDict when a total one is expected. Also, a total TypedDict is not
valid when a partial one is expected.
Supported operations¶
TypedDict objects support a subset of dictionary operations and methods.
You must use string literals as keys when calling most of the methods,
as otherwise mypy won’t be able to check that the key is valid. List
of supported operations:
Anything included in
Mapping:d[key]key in dlen(d)for key in d(iteration)
d.pop(key[, default])(partialTypedDicts only)del d[key](partialTypedDicts only)
Class-based syntax¶
An alternative, class-based syntax to define a TypedDict is supported
in Python 3.6 and later:
from typing import TypedDict # "from typing_extensions" in Python 3.7 and earlier
class Movie(TypedDict):
name: str
year: int
The above definition is equivalent to the original Movie
definition. It doesn’t actually define a real class. This syntax also
supports a form of inheritance – subclasses can define additional
items. However, this is primarily a notational shortcut. Since mypy
uses structural compatibility with TypedDicts, inheritance is not
required for compatibility. Here is an example of inheritance:
class Movie(TypedDict):
name: str
year: int
class BookBasedMovie(Movie):
based_on: str
Now BookBasedMovie has keys name, year and based_on.
Mixing required and non-required items¶
In addition to allowing reuse across TypedDict types, inheritance also allows
you to mix required and non-required (using total=False) items
in a single TypedDict. Example:
class MovieBase(TypedDict):
name: str
year: int
class Movie(MovieBase, total=False):
based_on: str
Now Movie has required keys name and year, while based_on
can be left out when constructing an object. A TypedDict with a mix of required
and non-required keys, such as Movie above, will only be compatible with
another TypedDict if all required keys in the other TypedDict are required keys in the
first TypedDict, and all non-required keys of the other TypedDict are also non-required keys
in the first TypedDict.
Unions of TypedDicts¶
Since TypedDicts are really just regular dicts at runtime, it is not possible to
use isinstance checks to distinguish between different variants of a Union of
TypedDict in the same way you can with regular objects.
Instead, you can use the tagged union pattern. The referenced section of the docs has a full description with an example, but in short, you will need to give each TypedDict the same key where each value has a unique Literal type. Then, check that key to distinguish between your TypedDicts.
Final names, methods and classes¶
This section introduces these related features:
Final names are variables or attributes that should not be reassigned after initialization. They are useful for declaring constants.
Final methods should not be overridden in a subclass.
Final classes should not be subclassed.
All of these are only enforced by mypy, and only in annotated code. There is no runtime enforcement by the Python runtime.
Note
The examples in this page import Final and final from the
typing module. These types were added to typing in Python 3.8,
but are also available for use in Python 3.4 - 3.7 via the
typing_extensions package.
Final names¶
You can use the typing.Final qualifier to indicate that
a name or attribute should not be reassigned, redefined, or
overridden. This is often useful for module and class level constants
as a way to prevent unintended modification. Mypy will prevent
further assignments to final names in type-checked code:
from typing import Final
RATE: Final = 3_000
class Base:
DEFAULT_ID: Final = 0
RATE = 300 # Error: can't assign to final attribute
Base.DEFAULT_ID = 1 # Error: can't override a final attribute
Another use case for final attributes is to protect certain attributes from being overridden in a subclass:
from typing import Final
class Window:
BORDER_WIDTH: Final = 2.5
...
class ListView(Window):
BORDER_WIDTH = 3 # Error: can't override a final attribute
You can use @property to make an attribute read-only, but unlike Final,
it doesn’t work with module attributes, and it doesn’t prevent overriding in
subclasses.
Syntax variants¶
You can use Final in one of these forms:
You can provide an explicit type using the syntax
Final[<type>]. Example:ID: Final[int] = 1
Here mypy will infer type
intforID.You can omit the type:
ID: Final = 1
Here mypy will infer type
Literal[1]forID. Note that unlike for generic classes this is not the same asFinal[Any].In class bodies and stub files you can omit the right hand side and just write
ID: Final[int].Finally, you can write
self.id: Final = 1(also optionally with a type in square brackets). This is allowed only in__init__methods, so that the final instance attribute is assigned only once when an instance is created.
Details of using Final¶
These are the two main rules for defining a final name:
There can be at most one final declaration per module or class for a given attribute. There can’t be separate class-level and instance-level constants with the same name.
There must be exactly one assignment to a final name.
A final attribute declared in a class body without an initializer must
be initialized in the __init__ method (you can skip the
initializer in stub files):
class ImmutablePoint:
x: Final[int]
y: Final[int] # Error: final attribute without an initializer
def __init__(self) -> None:
self.x = 1 # Good
Final can only be used as the outermost type in assignments or variable
annotations. Using it in any other position is an error. In particular,
Final can’t be used in annotations for function arguments:
x: list[Final[int]] = [] # Error!
def fun(x: Final[list[int]]) -> None: # Error!
...
Final and ClassVar should not be used together. Mypy will infer
the scope of a final declaration automatically depending on whether it was
initialized in the class body or in __init__.
A final attribute can’t be overridden by a subclass (even with another explicit final declaration). Note however that a final attribute can override a read-only property:
class Base:
@property
def ID(self) -> int: ...
class Derived(Base):
ID: Final = 1 # OK
Declaring a name as final only guarantees that the name will not be re-bound to another value. It doesn’t make the value immutable. You can use immutable ABCs and containers to prevent mutating such values:
x: Final = ['a', 'b']
x.append('c') # OK
y: Final[Sequence[str]] = ['a', 'b']
y.append('x') # Error: Sequence is immutable
z: Final = ('a', 'b') # Also an option
Final methods¶
Like with attributes, sometimes it is useful to protect a method from
overriding. You can use the typing.final decorator for this purpose:
from typing import final
class Base:
@final
def common_name(self) -> None:
...
class Derived(Base):
def common_name(self) -> None: # Error: cannot override a final method
...
This @final decorator can be used with instance methods, class methods,
static methods, and properties.
For overloaded methods you should add @final on the implementation
to make it final (or on the first overload in stubs):
from typing import Any, overload
class Base:
@overload
def method(self) -> None: ...
@overload
def method(self, arg: int) -> int: ...
@final
def method(self, x=None):
...
Final classes¶
You can apply the typing.final decorator to a class to indicate
to mypy that it should not be subclassed:
from typing import final
@final
class Leaf:
...
class MyLeaf(Leaf): # Error: Leaf can't be subclassed
...
The decorator acts as a declaration for mypy (and as documentation for humans), but it doesn’t actually prevent subclassing at runtime.
Here are some situations where using a final class may be useful:
A class wasn’t designed to be subclassed. Perhaps subclassing would not work as expected, or subclassing would be error-prone.
Subclassing would make code harder to understand or maintain. For example, you may want to prevent unnecessarily tight coupling between base classes and subclasses.
You want to retain the freedom to arbitrarily change the class implementation in the future, and these changes might break subclasses.
An abstract class that defines at least one abstract method or
property and has @final decorator will generate an error from
mypy, since those attributes could never be implemented.
from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod
from typing import final
@final
class A(metaclass=ABCMeta): # error: Final class A has abstract attributes "f"
@abstractmethod
def f(self, x: int) -> None: pass
Metaclasses¶
A metaclass is a class that describes
the construction and behavior of other classes, similarly to how classes
describe the construction and behavior of objects.
The default metaclass is type, but it’s possible to use other metaclasses.
Metaclasses allows one to create “a different kind of class”, such as
Enums, NamedTuples and singletons.
Mypy has some special understanding of ABCMeta and EnumMeta.
Defining a metaclass¶
class M(type):
pass
class A(metaclass=M):
pass
Metaclass usage example¶
Mypy supports the lookup of attributes in the metaclass:
from typing import Type, TypeVar, ClassVar
T = TypeVar('T')
class M(type):
count: ClassVar[int] = 0
def make(cls: Type[T]) -> T:
M.count += 1
return cls()
class A(metaclass=M):
pass
a: A = A.make() # make() is looked up at M; the result is an object of type A
print(A.count)
class B(A):
pass
b: B = B.make() # metaclasses are inherited
print(B.count + " objects were created") # Error: Unsupported operand types for + ("int" and "str")
Gotchas and limitations of metaclass support¶
Note that metaclasses pose some requirements on the inheritance structure, so it’s better not to combine metaclasses and class hierarchies:
class M1(type): pass
class M2(type): pass
class A1(metaclass=M1): pass
class A2(metaclass=M2): pass
class B1(A1, metaclass=M2): pass # Mypy Error: metaclass conflict
# At runtime the above definition raises an exception
# TypeError: metaclass conflict: the metaclass of a derived class must be a (non-strict) subclass of the metaclasses of all its bases
class B12(A1, A2): pass # Mypy Error: metaclass conflict
# This can be solved via a common metaclass subtype:
class CorrectMeta(M1, M2): pass
class B2(A1, A2, metaclass=CorrectMeta): pass # OK, runtime is also OK
Mypy does not understand dynamically-computed metaclasses, such as
class A(metaclass=f()): ...Mypy does not and cannot understand arbitrary metaclass code.
Mypy only recognizes subclasses of
typeas potential metaclasses.
Running mypy and managing imports¶
The Getting started page should have already introduced you to the basics of how to run mypy – pass in the files and directories you want to type check via the command line:
$ mypy foo.py bar.py some_directory
This page discusses in more detail how exactly to specify what files you want mypy to type check, how mypy discovers imported modules, and recommendations on how to handle any issues you may encounter along the way.
If you are interested in learning about how to configure the actual way mypy type checks your code, see our The mypy command line guide.
Specifying code to be checked¶
Mypy lets you specify what files it should type check in several different ways.
First, you can pass in paths to Python files and directories you want to type check. For example:
$ mypy file_1.py foo/file_2.py file_3.pyi some/directory
The above command tells mypy it should type check all of the provided files together. In addition, mypy will recursively type check the entire contents of any provided directories.
For more details about how exactly this is done, see Mapping file paths to modules.
Second, you can use the
-mflag (long form:--module) to specify a module name to be type checked. The name of a module is identical to the name you would use to import that module within a Python program. For example, running:$ mypy -m html.parser
…will type check the module
html.parser(this happens to be a library stub).Mypy will use an algorithm very similar to the one Python uses to find where modules and imports are located on the file system. For more details, see How imports are found.
Third, you can use the
-p(long form:--package) flag to specify a package to be (recursively) type checked. This flag is almost identical to the-mflag except that if you give it a package name, mypy will recursively type check all submodules and subpackages of that package. For example, running:$ mypy -p html
…will type check the entire
htmlpackage (of library stubs). In contrast, if we had used the-mflag, mypy would have type checked justhtml’s__init__.pyfile and anything imported from there.Note that we can specify multiple packages and modules on the command line. For example:
$ mypy --package p.a --package p.b --module c
Fourth, you can also instruct mypy to directly type check small strings as programs by using the
-c(long form:--command) flag. For example:$ mypy -c 'x = [1, 2]; print(x())'
…will type check the above string as a mini-program (and in this case, will report that
list[int]is not callable).
You can also use the files option in your mypy.ini file to specify which
files to check, in which case you can simply run mypy with no arguments.
Reading a list of files from a file¶
Finally, any command-line argument starting with @ reads additional
command-line arguments from the file following the @ character.
This is primarily useful if you have a file containing a list of files
that you want to be type-checked: instead of using shell syntax like:
$ mypy $(cat file_of_files.txt)
you can use this instead:
$ mypy @file_of_files.txt
This file can technically also contain any command line flag, not just file paths. However, if you want to configure many different flags, the recommended approach is to use a configuration file instead.
Mapping file paths to modules¶
One of the main ways you can tell mypy what to type check is by providing mypy a list of paths. For example:
$ mypy file_1.py foo/file_2.py file_3.pyi some/directory
This section describes how exactly mypy maps the provided paths to modules to type check.
Mypy will check all paths provided that correspond to files.
Mypy will recursively discover and check all files ending in
.pyor.pyiin directory paths provided, after accounting for--exclude.For each file to be checked, mypy will attempt to associate the file (e.g.
project/foo/bar/baz.py) with a fully qualified module name (e.g.foo.bar.baz). The directory the package is in (project) is then added to mypy’s module search paths.
How mypy determines fully qualified module names depends on if the options
--no-namespace-packages and
--explicit-package-bases are set.
If
--no-namespace-packagesis set, mypy will rely solely upon the presence of__init__.py[i]files to determine the fully qualified module name. That is, mypy will crawl up the directory tree for as long as it continues to find__init__.py(or__init__.pyi) files.For example, if your directory tree consists of
pkg/subpkg/mod.py, mypy would requirepkg/__init__.pyandpkg/subpkg/__init__.pyto exist in order correctly associatemod.pywithpkg.subpkg.modThe default case. If
--namespace-packagesis on, but--explicit-package-basesis off, mypy will allow for the possibility that directories without__init__.py[i]are packages. Specifically, mypy will look at all parent directories of the file and use the location of the highest__init__.py[i]in the directory tree to determine the top-level package.For example, say your directory tree consists solely of
pkg/__init__.pyandpkg/a/b/c/d/mod.py. When determiningmod.py’s fully qualified module name, mypy will look atpkg/__init__.pyand conclude that the associated module name ispkg.a.b.c.d.mod.You’ll notice that the above case still relies on
__init__.py. If you can’t put an__init__.pyin your top-level package, but still wish to pass paths (as opposed to packages or modules using the-por-mflags),--explicit-package-basesprovides a solution.With
--explicit-package-bases, mypy will locate the nearest parent directory that is a member of theMYPYPATHenvironment variable, themypy_pathconfig or is the current working directory. Mypy will then use the relative path to determine the fully qualified module name.For example, say your directory tree consists solely of
src/namespace_pkg/mod.py. If you run the following command, mypy will correctly associatemod.pywithnamespace_pkg.mod:$ MYPYPATH=src mypy --namespace-packages --explicit-package-bases .
If you pass a file not ending in .py[i], the module name assumed is
__main__ (matching the behavior of the Python interpreter), unless
--scripts-are-modules is passed.
Passing -v will show you the files and associated module
names that mypy will check.
How mypy handles imports¶
When mypy encounters an import statement, it will first
attempt to locate that module
or type stubs for that module in the file system. Mypy will then
type check the imported module. There are three different outcomes
of this process:
Mypy is unable to follow the import: the module either does not exist, or is a third party library that does not use type hints.
Mypy is able to follow and type check the import, but you did not want mypy to type check that module at all.
Mypy is able to successfully both follow and type check the module, and you want mypy to type check that module.
The third outcome is what mypy will do in the ideal case. The following sections will discuss what to do in the other two cases.
Missing imports¶
When you import a module, mypy may report that it is unable to follow the import. This can cause errors that look like the following:
main.py:1: error: Skipping analyzing 'django': module is installed, but missing library stubs or py.typed marker
main.py:2: error: Library stubs not installed for "requests"
main.py:3: error: Cannot find implementation or library stub for module named "this_module_does_not_exist"
If you get any of these errors on an import, mypy will assume the type of that
module is Any, the dynamic type. This means attempting to access any
attribute of the module will automatically succeed:
# Error: Cannot find implementation or library stub for module named 'does_not_exist'
import does_not_exist
# But this type checks, and x will have type 'Any'
x = does_not_exist.foobar()
This can result in mypy failing to warn you about errors in your code. Since
operations on Any result in Any, these dynamic types can propagate
through your code, making type checking less effective. See
Dynamically typed code for more information.
The next sections describe what each of these errors means and recommended next steps; scroll to the section that matches your error.
Missing library stubs or py.typed marker¶
If you are getting a Skipping analyzing X: module is installed, but missing library stubs or py.typed marker,
error, this means mypy was able to find the module you were importing, but no
corresponding type hints.
Mypy will not try inferring the types of any 3rd party libraries you have installed
unless they either have declared themselves to be
PEP 561 compliant stub package (e.g. with a py.typed file) or have registered
themselves on typeshed, the repository
of types for the standard library and some 3rd party libraries.
If you are getting this error, try to obtain type hints for the library you’re using:
Upgrading the version of the library you’re using, in case a newer version has started to include type hints.
Searching to see if there is a PEP 561 compliant stub package corresponding to your third party library. Stub packages let you install type hints independently from the library itself.
For example, if you want type hints for the
djangolibrary, you can install the django-stubs package.Writing your own stub files containing type hints for the library. You can point mypy at your type hints either by passing them in via the command line, by using the
filesormypy_pathconfig file options, or by adding the location to theMYPYPATHenvironment variable.These stub files do not need to be complete! A good strategy is to use stubgen, a program that comes bundled with mypy, to generate a first rough draft of the stubs. You can then iterate on just the parts of the library you need.
If you want to share your work, you can try contributing your stubs back to the library – see our documentation on creating PEP 561 compliant packages.
If you are unable to find any existing type hints nor have time to write your own, you can instead suppress the errors.
All this will do is make mypy stop reporting an error on the line containing the
import: the imported module will continue to be of type Any, and mypy may
not catch errors in its use.
To suppress a single missing import error, add a
# type: ignoreat the end of the line containing the import.To suppress all missing import errors from a single library, add a per-module section to your mypy config file setting
ignore_missing_importsto True for that library. For example, suppose your codebase makes heavy use of an (untyped) library namedfoobar. You can silence all import errors associated with that library and that library alone by adding the following section to your config file:[mypy-foobar.*] ignore_missing_imports = True
Note: this option is equivalent to adding a
# type: ignoreto every import offoobarin your codebase. For more information, see the documentation about configuring import discovery in config files. The.*afterfoobarwill ignore imports offoobarmodules and subpackages in addition to thefoobartop-level package namespace.To suppress all missing import errors for all untyped libraries in your codebase, use
--disable-error-code=import-untyped. See Check that import target can be found [import-untyped] for more details on this error code.You can also set
disable_error_code, like so:[mypy] disable_error_code = import-untyped
You can also set the
--ignore-missing-importscommand line flag or set theignore_missing_importsconfig file option to True in the global section of your mypy config file. We recommend avoiding--ignore-missing-importsif possible: it’s equivalent to adding a# type: ignoreto all unresolved imports in your codebase.
Library stubs not installed¶
If mypy can’t find stubs for a third-party library, and it knows that stubs exist for the library, you will get a message like this:
main.py:1: error: Library stubs not installed for "yaml"
main.py:1: note: Hint: "python3 -m pip install types-PyYAML"
main.py:1: note: (or run "mypy --install-types" to install all missing stub packages)
You can resolve the issue by running the suggested pip commands.
If you’re running mypy in CI, you can ensure the presence of any stub packages
you need the same as you would any other test dependency, e.g. by adding them to
the appropriate requirements.txt file.
Alternatively, add the --install-types
to your mypy command to install all known missing stubs:
mypy --install-types
This is slower than explicitly installing stubs, since it effectively runs mypy twice – the first time to find the missing stubs, and the second time to type check your code properly after mypy has installed the stubs. It also can make controlling stub versions harder, resulting in less reproducible type checking.
By default, --install-types shows a confirmation prompt.
Use --non-interactive to install all suggested
stub packages without asking for confirmation and type check your code:
If you’ve already installed the relevant third-party libraries in an environment
other than the one mypy is running in, you can use --python-executable flag to point to the Python executable for that
environment, and mypy will find packages installed for that Python executable.
If you’ve installed the relevant stub packages and are still getting this error, see the section below.
Cannot find implementation or library stub¶
If you are getting a Cannot find implementation or library stub for module
error, this means mypy was not able to find the module you are trying to
import, whether it comes bundled with type hints or not. If you are getting
this error, try:
Making sure your import does not contain a typo.
If the module is a third party library, making sure that mypy is able to find the interpreter containing the installed library.
For example, if you are running your code in a virtualenv, make sure to install and use mypy within the virtualenv. Alternatively, if you want to use a globally installed mypy, set the
--python-executablecommand line flag to point the Python interpreter containing your installed third party packages.You can confirm that you are running mypy from the environment you expect by running it like
python -m mypy .... You can confirm that you are installing into the environment you expect by running pip likepython -m pip ....Reading the How imports are found section below to make sure you understand how exactly mypy searches for and finds modules and modify how you’re invoking mypy accordingly.
Directly specifying the directory containing the module you want to type check from the command line, by using the
mypy_pathorfilesconfig file options, or by using theMYPYPATHenvironment variable.Note: if the module you are trying to import is actually a submodule of some package, you should specify the directory containing the entire package. For example, suppose you are trying to add the module
foo.bar.bazwhich is located at~/foo-project/src/foo/bar/baz.py. In this case, you must runmypy ~/foo-project/src(or set theMYPYPATHto~/foo-project/src).
How imports are found¶
When mypy encounters an import statement or receives module
names from the command line via the --module or --package
flags, mypy tries to find the module on the file system similar
to the way Python finds it. However, there are some differences.
First, mypy has its own search path. This is computed from the following items:
The
MYPYPATHenvironment variable (a list of directories, colon-separated on UNIX systems, semicolon-separated on Windows).The
mypy_pathconfig file option.The directories containing the sources given on the command line (see Mapping file paths to modules).
The installed packages marked as safe for type checking (see PEP 561 support)
The relevant directories of the typeshed repo.
Note
You cannot point to a stub-only package (PEP 561) via the MYPYPATH, it must be
installed (see PEP 561 support)
Second, mypy searches for stub files in addition to regular Python files
and packages.
The rules for searching for a module foo are as follows:
The search looks in each of the directories in the search path (see above) until a match is found.
If a package named
foois found (i.e. a directoryfoocontaining an__init__.pyor__init__.pyifile) that’s a match.If a stub file named
foo.pyiis found, that’s a match.If a Python module named
foo.pyis found, that’s a match.
These matches are tried in order, so that if multiple matches are found in the same directory on the search path (e.g. a package and a Python file, or a stub file and a Python file) the first one in the above list wins.
In particular, if a Python file and a stub file are both present in the same directory on the search path, only the stub file is used. (However, if the files are in different directories, the one found in the earlier directory is used.)
Setting mypy_path/MYPYPATH is mostly useful in the case
where you want to try running mypy against multiple distinct
sets of files that happen to share some common dependencies.
For example, if you have multiple projects that happen to be
using the same set of work-in-progress stubs, it could be
convenient to just have your MYPYPATH point to a single
directory containing the stubs.
Following imports¶
Mypy is designed to doggedly follow all imports, even if the imported module is not a file you explicitly wanted mypy to check.
For example, suppose we have two modules mycode.foo and mycode.bar:
the former has type hints and the latter does not. We run
mypy -m mycode.foo and mypy discovers that mycode.foo imports
mycode.bar.
How do we want mypy to type check mycode.bar? Mypy’s behaviour here is
configurable – although we strongly recommend using the default –
by using the --follow-imports flag. This flag
accepts one of four string values:
normal(the default, recommended) follows all imports normally and type checks all top level code (as well as the bodies of all functions and methods with at least one type annotation in the signature).silentbehaves in the same way asnormalbut will additionally suppress any error messages.skipwill not follow imports and instead will silently replace the module (and anything imported from it) with an object of typeAny.errorbehaves in the same way asskipbut is not quite as silent – it will flag the import as an error, like this:main.py:1: note: Import of "mycode.bar" ignored main.py:1: note: (Using --follow-imports=error, module not passed on command line)
If you are starting a new codebase and plan on using type hints from
the start, we recommend you use either --follow-imports=normal
(the default) or --follow-imports=error. Either option will help
make sure you are not skipping checking any part of your codebase by
accident.
If you are planning on adding type hints to a large, existing code base,
we recommend you start by trying to make your entire codebase (including
files that do not use type hints) pass under --follow-imports=normal.
This is usually not too difficult to do: mypy is designed to report as
few error messages as possible when it is looking at unannotated code.
Only if doing this is intractable, we recommend passing mypy just the files
you want to type check and use --follow-imports=silent. Even if
mypy is unable to perfectly type check a file, it can still glean some
useful information by parsing it (for example, understanding what methods
a given object has). See Using mypy with an existing codebase for more recommendations.
We do not recommend using skip unless you know what you are doing:
while this option can be quite powerful, it can also cause many
hard-to-debug errors.
Adjusting import following behaviour is often most useful when restricted to
specific modules. This can be accomplished by setting a per-module
follow_imports config option.
The mypy command line¶
This section documents mypy’s command line interface. You can view
a quick summary of the available flags by running mypy --help.
Note
Command line flags are liable to change between releases.
Specifying what to type check¶
By default, you can specify what code you want mypy to type check by passing in the paths to what you want to have type checked:
$ mypy foo.py bar.py some_directory
Note that directories are checked recursively.
Mypy also lets you specify what code to type check in several other ways. A short summary of the relevant flags is included below: for full details, see Running mypy and managing imports.
- -m MODULE, --module MODULE¶
Asks mypy to type check the provided module. This flag may be repeated multiple times.
Mypy will not recursively type check any submodules of the provided module.
- -p PACKAGE, --package PACKAGE¶
Asks mypy to type check the provided package. This flag may be repeated multiple times.
Mypy will recursively type check any submodules of the provided package. This flag is identical to
--moduleapart from this behavior.
- -c PROGRAM_TEXT, --command PROGRAM_TEXT¶
Asks mypy to type check the provided string as a program.
- --exclude¶
A regular expression that matches file names, directory names and paths which mypy should ignore while recursively discovering files to check. Use forward slashes on all platforms.
For instance, to avoid discovering any files named setup.py you could pass
--exclude '/setup\.py$'. Similarly, you can ignore discovering directories with a given name by e.g.--exclude /build/or those matching a subpath with--exclude /project/vendor/. To ignore multiple files / directories / paths, you can provide the –exclude flag more than once, e.g--exclude '/setup\.py$' --exclude '/build/'.Note that this flag only affects recursive directory tree discovery, that is, when mypy is discovering files within a directory tree or submodules of a package to check. If you pass a file or module explicitly it will still be checked. For instance,
mypy --exclude '/setup.py$' but_still_check/setup.py.In particular,
--excludedoes not affect mypy’s import following. You can use a per-modulefollow_importsconfig option to additionally avoid mypy from following imports and checking code you do not wish to be checked.Note that mypy will never recursively discover files and directories named “site-packages”, “node_modules” or “__pycache__”, or those whose name starts with a period, exactly as
--exclude '/(site-packages|node_modules|__pycache__|\..*)/$'would. Mypy will also never recursively discover files with extensions other than.pyor.pyi.
Optional arguments¶
- -h, --help¶
Show help message and exit.
- -v, --verbose¶
More verbose messages.
- -V, --version¶
Show program’s version number and exit.
Config file¶
- --config-file CONFIG_FILE¶
This flag makes mypy read configuration settings from the given file.
By default settings are read from
mypy.ini,.mypy.ini,pyproject.toml, orsetup.cfgin the current directory. Settings override mypy’s built-in defaults and command line flags can override settings.Specifying
--config-file=(with no filename) will ignore all config files.See The mypy configuration file for the syntax of configuration files.
- --warn-unused-configs¶
This flag makes mypy warn about unused
[mypy-<pattern>]config file sections. (This requires turning off incremental mode using--no-incremental.)
Import discovery¶
The following flags customize how exactly mypy discovers and follows imports.
- --explicit-package-bases¶
This flag tells mypy that top-level packages will be based in either the current directory, or a member of the
MYPYPATHenvironment variable ormypy_pathconfig option. This option is only useful in the absence of __init__.py. See Mapping file paths to modules for details.
- --ignore-missing-imports¶
This flag makes mypy ignore all missing imports. It is equivalent to adding
# type: ignorecomments to all unresolved imports within your codebase.Note that this flag does not suppress errors about missing names in successfully resolved modules. For example, if one has the following files:
package/__init__.py package/mod.py
Then mypy will generate the following errors with
--ignore-missing-imports:import package.unknown # No error, ignored x = package.unknown.func() # OK. 'func' is assumed to be of type 'Any' from package import unknown # No error, ignored from package.mod import NonExisting # Error: Module has no attribute 'NonExisting'
For more details, see Missing imports.
- --follow-imports {normal,silent,skip,error}¶
This flag adjusts how mypy follows imported modules that were not explicitly passed in via the command line.
The default option is
normal: mypy will follow and type check all modules. For more information on what the other options do, see Following imports.
- --python-executable EXECUTABLE¶
This flag will have mypy collect type information from PEP 561 compliant packages installed for the Python executable
EXECUTABLE. If not provided, mypy will use PEP 561 compliant packages installed for the Python executable running mypy.See Using installed packages for more on making PEP 561 compliant packages.
- --no-site-packages¶
This flag will disable searching for PEP 561 compliant packages. This will also disable searching for a usable Python executable.
Use this flag if mypy cannot find a Python executable for the version of Python being checked, and you don’t need to use PEP 561 typed packages. Otherwise, use
--python-executable.
- --no-silence-site-packages¶
By default, mypy will suppress any error messages generated within PEP 561 compliant packages. Adding this flag will disable this behavior.
- --fast-module-lookup¶
The default logic used to scan through search paths to resolve imports has a quadratic worse-case behavior in some cases, which is for instance triggered by a large number of folders sharing a top-level namespace as in:
foo/ company/ foo/ a.py bar/ company/ bar/ b.py baz/ company/ baz/ c.py ...
If you are in this situation, you can enable an experimental fast path by setting the
--fast-module-lookupoption.
- --no-namespace-packages¶
This flag disables import discovery of namespace packages (see PEP 420). In particular, this prevents discovery of packages that don’t have an
__init__.py(or__init__.pyi) file.This flag affects how mypy finds modules and packages explicitly passed on the command line. It also affects how mypy determines fully qualified module names for files passed on the command line. See Mapping file paths to modules for details.
Platform configuration¶
By default, mypy will assume that you intend to run your code using the same operating system and Python version you are using to run mypy itself. The following flags let you modify this behavior.
For more information on how to use these flags, see Python version and system platform checks.
- --python-version X.Y¶
This flag will make mypy type check your code as if it were run under Python version X.Y. Without this option, mypy will default to using whatever version of Python is running mypy.
This flag will attempt to find a Python executable of the corresponding version to search for PEP 561 compliant packages. If you’d like to disable this, use the
--no-site-packagesflag (see Import discovery for more details).
- --platform PLATFORM¶
This flag will make mypy type check your code as if it were run under the given operating system. Without this option, mypy will default to using whatever operating system you are currently using.
The
PLATFORMparameter may be any string supported bysys.platform.
- --always-true NAME¶
This flag will treat all variables named
NAMEas compile-time constants that are always true. This flag may be repeated.
- --always-false NAME¶
This flag will treat all variables named
NAMEas compile-time constants that are always false. This flag may be repeated.
Disallow dynamic typing¶
The Any type is used to represent a value that has a dynamic type.
The --disallow-any family of flags will disallow various uses of the Any type in
a module – this lets us strategically disallow the use of dynamic typing in a controlled way.
The following options are available:
- --disallow-any-unimported¶
This flag disallows usage of types that come from unfollowed imports (such types become aliases for
Any). Unfollowed imports occur either when the imported module does not exist or when--follow-imports=skipis set.
- --disallow-any-expr¶
This flag disallows all expressions in the module that have type
Any. If an expression of typeAnyappears anywhere in the module mypy will output an error unless the expression is immediately used as an argument tocast()or assigned to a variable with an explicit type annotation.In addition, declaring a variable of type
Anyor casting to typeAnyis not allowed. Note that calling functions that take parameters of typeAnyis still allowed.
- --disallow-any-decorated¶
This flag disallows functions that have
Anyin their signature after decorator transformation.
- --disallow-any-explicit¶
This flag disallows explicit
Anyin type positions such as type annotations and generic type parameters.
- --disallow-any-generics¶
This flag disallows usage of generic types that do not specify explicit type parameters. For example, you can’t use a bare
x: list. Instead, you must always write something likex: list[int].
- --disallow-subclassing-any¶
This flag reports an error whenever a class subclasses a value of type
Any. This may occur when the base class is imported from a module that doesn’t exist (when using--ignore-missing-imports) or is ignored due to--follow-imports=skipor a# type: ignorecomment on theimportstatement.Since the module is silenced, the imported class is given a type of
Any. By default mypy will assume that the subclass correctly inherited the base class even though that may not actually be the case. This flag makes mypy raise an error instead.
Untyped definitions and calls¶
The following flags configure how mypy handles untyped function definitions or calls.
- --disallow-untyped-calls¶
This flag reports an error whenever a function with type annotations calls a function defined without annotations.
- --untyped-calls-exclude¶
This flag allows to selectively disable
--disallow-untyped-callsfor functions and methods defined in specific packages, modules, or classes. Note that each exclude entry acts as a prefix. For example (assuming there are no type annotations forthird_party_libavailable):# mypy --disallow-untyped-calls # --untyped-calls-exclude=third_party_lib.module_a # --untyped-calls-exclude=foo.A from third_party_lib.module_a import some_func from third_party_lib.module_b import other_func import foo some_func() # OK, function comes from module `third_party_lib.module_a` other_func() # E: Call to untyped function "other_func" in typed context foo.A().meth() # OK, method was defined in class `foo.A` foo.B().meth() # E: Call to untyped function "meth" in typed context # file foo.py class A: def meth(self): pass class B: def meth(self): pass
- --disallow-untyped-defs¶
This flag reports an error whenever it encounters a function definition without type annotations or with incomplete type annotations. (a superset of
--disallow-incomplete-defs).For example, it would report an error for
def f(a, b)anddef f(a: int, b).
- --disallow-incomplete-defs¶
This flag reports an error whenever it encounters a partly annotated function definition, while still allowing entirely unannotated definitions.
For example, it would report an error for
def f(a: int, b)but notdef f(a, b).
- --check-untyped-defs¶
This flag is less severe than the previous two options – it type checks the body of every function, regardless of whether it has type annotations. (By default the bodies of functions without annotations are not type checked.)
It will assume all arguments have type
Anyand always inferAnyas the return type.
- --disallow-untyped-decorators¶
This flag reports an error whenever a function with type annotations is decorated with a decorator without annotations.
None and Optional handling¶
The following flags adjust how mypy handles values of type None.
- --implicit-optional¶
This flag causes mypy to treat arguments with a
Nonedefault value as having an implicitOptionaltype.For example, if this flag is set, mypy would assume that the
xparameter is actually of typeOptional[int]in the code snippet below since the default parameter isNone:def foo(x: int = None) -> None: print(x)
Note: This was disabled by default starting in mypy 0.980.
- --no-strict-optional¶
This flag effectively disables checking of
Optionaltypes andNonevalues. With this option, mypy doesn’t generally check the use ofNonevalues – it is treated as compatible with every type.Warning
--no-strict-optionalis evil. Avoid using it and definitely do not use it without understanding what it does.
Configuring warnings¶
The following flags enable warnings for code that is sound but is potentially problematic or redundant in some way.
- --warn-redundant-casts¶
This flag will make mypy report an error whenever your code uses an unnecessary cast that can safely be removed.
- --warn-unused-ignores¶
This flag will make mypy report an error whenever your code uses a
# type: ignorecomment on a line that is not actually generating an error message.This flag, along with the
--warn-redundant-castsflag, are both particularly useful when you are upgrading mypy. Previously, you may have needed to add casts or# type: ignoreannotations to work around bugs in mypy or missing stubs for 3rd party libraries.These two flags let you discover cases where either workarounds are no longer necessary.
- --no-warn-no-return¶
By default, mypy will generate errors when a function is missing return statements in some execution paths. The only exceptions are when:
The function has a
NoneorAnyreturn typeThe function has an empty body and is marked as an abstract method, is in a protocol class, or is in a stub file
- The execution path can never return; for example, if an exception
is always raised
Passing in
--no-warn-no-returnwill disable these error messages in all cases.
- --warn-return-any¶
This flag causes mypy to generate a warning when returning a value with type
Anyfrom a function declared with a non-Anyreturn type.
- --warn-unreachable¶
This flag will make mypy report an error whenever it encounters code determined to be unreachable or redundant after performing type analysis. This can be a helpful way of detecting certain kinds of bugs in your code.
For example, enabling this flag will make mypy report that the
x > 7check is redundant and that theelseblock below is unreachable.def process(x: int) -> None: # Error: Right operand of "or" is never evaluated if isinstance(x, int) or x > 7: # Error: Unsupported operand types for + ("int" and "str") print(x + "bad") else: # Error: 'Statement is unreachable' error print(x + "bad")
To help prevent mypy from generating spurious warnings, the “Statement is unreachable” warning will be silenced in exactly two cases:
When the unreachable statement is a
raisestatement, is anassert Falsestatement, or calls a function that has theNoReturnreturn type hint. In other words, when the unreachable statement throws an error or terminates the program in some way.When the unreachable statement was intentionally marked as unreachable using Python version and system platform checks.
Note
Mypy currently cannot detect and report unreachable or redundant code inside any functions using Type variables with value restriction.
This limitation will be removed in future releases of mypy.
Miscellaneous strictness flags¶
This section documents any other flags that do not neatly fall under any of the above sections.
- --allow-untyped-globals¶
This flag causes mypy to suppress errors caused by not being able to fully infer the types of global and class variables.
- --allow-redefinition¶
By default, mypy won’t allow a variable to be redefined with an unrelated type. This flag enables redefinition of a variable with an arbitrary type in some contexts: only redefinitions within the same block and nesting depth as the original definition are allowed. Example where this can be useful:
def process(items: list[str]) -> None: # 'items' has type list[str] items = [item.split() for item in items] # 'items' now has type list[list[str]]
The variable must be used before it can be redefined:
def process(items: list[str]) -> None: items = "mypy" # invalid redefinition to str because the variable hasn't been used yet print(items) items = "100" # valid, items now has type str items = int(items) # valid, items now has type int
- --local-partial-types¶
In mypy, the most common cases for partial types are variables initialized using
None, but without explicitOptionalannotations. By default, mypy won’t check partial types spanning module top level or class top level. This flag changes the behavior to only allow partial types at local level, therefore it disallows inferring variable type forNonefrom two assignments in different scopes. For example:from typing import Optional a = None # Need type annotation here if using --local-partial-types b: Optional[int] = None class Foo: bar = None # Need type annotation here if using --local-partial-types baz: Optional[int] = None def __init__(self) -> None: self.bar = 1 reveal_type(Foo().bar) # Union[int, None] without --local-partial-types
Note: this option is always implicitly enabled in mypy daemon and will become enabled by default for mypy in a future release.
- --no-implicit-reexport¶
By default, imported values to a module are treated as exported and mypy allows other modules to import them. This flag changes the behavior to not re-export unless the item is imported using from-as or is included in
__all__. Note this is always treated as enabled for stub files. For example:# This won't re-export the value from foo import bar # Neither will this from foo import bar as bang # This will re-export it as bar and allow other modules to import it from foo import bar as bar # This will also re-export bar from foo import bar __all__ = ['bar']
- --strict-equality¶
By default, mypy allows always-false comparisons like
42 == 'no'. Use this flag to prohibit such comparisons of non-overlapping types, and similar identity and container checks:from typing import Text items: list[int] if 'some string' in items: # Error: non-overlapping container check! ... text: Text if text != b'other bytes': # Error: non-overlapping equality check! ... assert text is not None # OK, check against None is allowed as a special case.
- --extra-checks¶
This flag enables additional checks that are technically correct but may be impractical in real code. In particular, it prohibits partial overlap in
TypedDictupdates, and makes arguments prepended viaConcatenatepositional-only. For example:from typing import TypedDict class Foo(TypedDict): a: int class Bar(TypedDict): a: int b: int def test(foo: Foo, bar: Bar) -> None: # This is technically unsafe since foo can have a subtype of Foo at # runtime, where type of key "b" is incompatible with int, see below bar.update(foo) class Bad(Foo): b: str bad: Bad = {"a": 0, "b": "no"} test(bad, bar)
- --strict¶
This flag mode enables all optional error checking flags. You can see the list of flags enabled by strict mode in the full
mypy --helpoutput.Note: the exact list of flags enabled by running
--strictmay change over time.
- --disable-error-code¶
This flag allows disabling one or multiple error codes globally. See Error codes for more information.
# no flag x = 'a string' x.trim() # error: "str" has no attribute "trim" [attr-defined] # When using --disable-error-code attr-defined x = 'a string' x.trim()
- --enable-error-code¶
This flag allows enabling one or multiple error codes globally. See Error codes for more information.
Note: This flag will override disabled error codes from the
--disable-error-codeflag.# When using --disable-error-code attr-defined x = 'a string' x.trim() # --disable-error-code attr-defined --enable-error-code attr-defined x = 'a string' x.trim() # error: "str" has no attribute "trim" [attr-defined]
Configuring error messages¶
The following flags let you adjust how much detail mypy displays in error messages.
- --show-error-context¶
This flag will precede all errors with “note” messages explaining the context of the error. For example, consider the following program:
class Test: def foo(self, x: int) -> int: return x + "bar"
Mypy normally displays an error message that looks like this:
main.py:3: error: Unsupported operand types for + ("int" and "str")
If we enable this flag, the error message now looks like this:
main.py: note: In member "foo" of class "Test": main.py:3: error: Unsupported operand types for + ("int" and "str")
- --show-column-numbers¶
This flag will add column offsets to error messages. For example, the following indicates an error in line 12, column 9 (note that column offsets are 0-based):
main.py:12:9: error: Unsupported operand types for / ("int" and "str")
- --show-error-end¶
This flag will make mypy show not just that start position where an error was detected, but also the end position of the relevant expression. This way various tools can easily highlight the whole error span. The format is
file:line:column:end_line:end_column. This option implies--show-column-numbers.
- --hide-error-codes¶
This flag will hide the error code
[<code>]from error messages. By default, the error code is shown after each error message:prog.py:1: error: "str" has no attribute "trim" [attr-defined]
See Error codes for more information.
- --pretty¶
Use visually nicer output in error messages: use soft word wrap, show source code snippets, and show error location markers.
- --no-color-output¶
This flag will disable color output in error messages, enabled by default.
- --no-error-summary¶
This flag will disable error summary. By default mypy shows a summary line including total number of errors, number of files with errors, and number of files checked.
- --show-absolute-path¶
Show absolute paths to files.
- --soft-error-limit N¶
This flag will adjust the limit after which mypy will (sometimes) disable reporting most additional errors. The limit only applies if it seems likely that most of the remaining errors will not be useful or they may be overly noisy. If
Nis negative, there is no limit. The default limit is -1.
- --force-uppercase-builtins¶
Always use
Listinstead oflistin error messages, even on Python 3.9+.
- --force-union-syntax¶
Always use
Union[]andOptional[]for union types in error messages (instead of the|operator), even on Python 3.10+.
Incremental mode¶
By default, mypy will store type information into a cache. Mypy will use this information to avoid unnecessary recomputation when it type checks your code again. This can help speed up the type checking process, especially when most parts of your program have not changed since the previous mypy run.
If you want to speed up how long it takes to recheck your code beyond what incremental mode can offer, try running mypy in daemon mode.
- --no-incremental¶
This flag disables incremental mode: mypy will no longer reference the cache when re-run.
Note that mypy will still write out to the cache even when incremental mode is disabled: see the
--cache-dirflag below for more details.
- --cache-dir DIR¶
By default, mypy stores all cache data inside of a folder named
.mypy_cachein the current directory. This flag lets you change this folder. This flag can also be useful for controlling cache use when using remote caching.This setting will override the
MYPY_CACHE_DIRenvironment variable if it is set.Mypy will also always write to the cache even when incremental mode is disabled so it can “warm up” the cache. To disable writing to the cache, use
--cache-dir=/dev/null(UNIX) or--cache-dir=nul(Windows).
- --cache-fine-grained¶
Include fine-grained dependency information in the cache for the mypy daemon.
- --skip-version-check¶
By default, mypy will ignore cache data generated by a different version of mypy. This flag disables that behavior.
- --skip-cache-mtime-checks¶
Skip cache internal consistency checks based on mtime.
Advanced options¶
The following flags are useful mostly for people who are interested in developing or debugging mypy internals.
- --pdb¶
This flag will invoke the Python debugger when mypy encounters a fatal error.
- --show-traceback, --tb¶
If set, this flag will display a full traceback when mypy encounters a fatal error.
- --raise-exceptions¶
Raise exception on fatal error.
- --custom-typing-module MODULE¶
This flag lets you use a custom module as a substitute for the
typingmodule.
- --custom-typeshed-dir DIR¶
This flag specifies the directory where mypy looks for standard library typeshed stubs, instead of the typeshed that ships with mypy. This is primarily intended to make it easier to test typeshed changes before submitting them upstream, but also allows you to use a forked version of typeshed.
Note that this doesn’t affect third-party library stubs. To test third-party stubs, for example try
MYPYPATH=stubs/six mypy ....
- --warn-incomplete-stub¶
This flag modifies both the
--disallow-untyped-defsand--disallow-incomplete-defsflags so they also report errors if stubs in typeshed are missing type annotations or has incomplete annotations. If both flags are missing,--warn-incomplete-stubalso does nothing.This flag is mainly intended to be used by people who want contribute to typeshed and would like a convenient way to find gaps and omissions.
If you want mypy to report an error when your codebase uses an untyped function, whether that function is defined in typeshed or not, use the
--disallow-untyped-callsflag. See Untyped definitions and calls for more details.
- --shadow-file SOURCE_FILE SHADOW_FILE¶
When mypy is asked to type check
SOURCE_FILE, this flag makes mypy read from and type check the contents ofSHADOW_FILEinstead. However, diagnostics will continue to refer toSOURCE_FILE.Specifying this argument multiple times (
--shadow-file X1 Y1 --shadow-file X2 Y2) will allow mypy to perform multiple substitutions.This allows tooling to create temporary files with helpful modifications without having to change the source file in place. For example, suppose we have a pipeline that adds
reveal_typefor certain variables. This pipeline is run onoriginal.pyto producetemp.py. Runningmypy --shadow-file original.py temp.py original.pywill then cause mypy to type check the contents oftemp.pyinstead oforiginal.py, but error messages will still referenceoriginal.py.
Report generation¶
If these flags are set, mypy will generate a report in the specified format into the specified directory.
- --any-exprs-report DIR¶
Causes mypy to generate a text file report documenting how many expressions of type
Anyare present within your codebase.
- --cobertura-xml-report DIR¶
Causes mypy to generate a Cobertura XML type checking coverage report.
To generate this report, you must either manually install the lxml library or specify mypy installation with the setuptools extra
mypy[reports].
- --html-report / --xslt-html-report DIR¶
Causes mypy to generate an HTML type checking coverage report.
To generate this report, you must either manually install the lxml library or specify mypy installation with the setuptools extra
mypy[reports].
- --linecount-report DIR¶
Causes mypy to generate a text file report documenting the functions and lines that are typed and untyped within your codebase.
- --linecoverage-report DIR¶
Causes mypy to generate a JSON file that maps each source file’s absolute filename to a list of line numbers that belong to typed functions in that file.
- --lineprecision-report DIR¶
Causes mypy to generate a flat text file report with per-module statistics of how many lines are typechecked etc.
Enabling incomplete/experimental features¶
- --enable-incomplete-feature {PreciseTupleTypes}¶
Some features may require several mypy releases to implement, for example due to their complexity, potential for backwards incompatibility, or ambiguous semantics that would benefit from feedback from the community. You can enable such features for early preview using this flag. Note that it is not guaranteed that all features will be ultimately enabled by default. In rare cases we may decide to not go ahead with certain features.
List of currently incomplete/experimental features:
PreciseTupleTypes: this feature will infer more precise tuple types in various scenarios. Before variadic types were added to the Python type system by PEP 646, it was impossible to express a type like “a tuple with at least two integers”. The best type available wastuple[int, ...]. Therefore, mypy applied very lenient checking for variable-length tuples. Now this type can be expressed astuple[int, int, *tuple[int, ...]]. For such more precise types (when explicitly defined by a user) mypy, for example, warns about unsafe index access, and generally handles them in a type-safe manner. However, to avoid problems in existing code, mypy does not infer these precise types when it technically can. Here are notable examples wherePreciseTupleTypesinfers more precise types:numbers: tuple[int, ...] more_numbers = (1, *numbers, 1) reveal_type(more_numbers) # Without PreciseTupleTypes: tuple[int, ...] # With PreciseTupleTypes: tuple[int, *tuple[int, ...], int] other_numbers = (1, 1) + numbers reveal_type(other_numbers) # Without PreciseTupleTypes: tuple[int, ...] # With PreciseTupleTypes: tuple[int, int, *tuple[int, ...]] if len(numbers) > 2: reveal_type(numbers) # Without PreciseTupleTypes: tuple[int, ...] # With PreciseTupleTypes: tuple[int, int, int, *tuple[int, ...]] else: reveal_type(numbers) # Without PreciseTupleTypes: tuple[int, ...] # With PreciseTupleTypes: tuple[()] | tuple[int] | tuple[int, int]
Miscellaneous¶
- --install-types¶
This flag causes mypy to install known missing stub packages for third-party libraries using pip. It will display the pip command that will be run, and expects a confirmation before installing anything. For security reasons, these stubs are limited to only a small subset of manually selected packages that have been verified by the typeshed team. These packages include only stub files and no executable code.
If you use this option without providing any files or modules to type check, mypy will install stub packages suggested during the previous mypy run. If there are files or modules to type check, mypy first type checks those, and proposes to install missing stubs at the end of the run, but only if any missing modules were detected.
Note
This is new in mypy 0.900. Previous mypy versions included a selection of third-party package stubs, instead of having them installed separately.
- --non-interactive¶
When used together with
--install-types, this causes mypy to install all suggested stub packages using pip without asking for confirmation, and then continues to perform type checking using the installed stubs, if some files or modules are provided to type check.This is implemented as up to two mypy runs internally. The first run is used to find missing stub packages, and output is shown from this run only if no missing stub packages were found. If missing stub packages were found, they are installed and then another run is performed.
- --junit-xml JUNIT_XML¶
Causes mypy to generate a JUnit XML test result document with type checking results. This can make it easier to integrate mypy with continuous integration (CI) tools.
- --find-occurrences CLASS.MEMBER¶
This flag will make mypy print out all usages of a class member based on static type information. This feature is experimental.
- --scripts-are-modules¶
This flag will give command line arguments that appear to be scripts (i.e. files whose name does not end in
.py) a module name derived from the script name rather than the fixed name__main__.This lets you check more than one script in a single mypy invocation. (The default
__main__is technically more correct, but if you have many scripts that import a large package, the behavior enabled by this flag is often more convenient.)
The mypy configuration file¶
Mypy is very configurable. This is most useful when introducing typing to an existing codebase. See Using mypy with an existing codebase for concrete advice for that situation.
Mypy supports reading configuration settings from a file with the following precedence order:
./mypy.ini
./.mypy.ini
./pyproject.toml
./setup.cfg
$XDG_CONFIG_HOME/mypy/config
~/.config/mypy/config
~/.mypy.ini
It is important to understand that there is no merging of configuration
files, as it would lead to ambiguity. The --config-file
command-line flag has the highest precedence and
must be correct; otherwise mypy will report an error and exit. Without the
command line option, mypy will look for configuration files in the
precedence order above.
Most flags correspond closely to command-line flags but there are some differences in flag names and some flags may take a different value based on the module being processed.
Some flags support user home directory and environment variable expansion.
To refer to the user home directory, use ~ at the beginning of the path.
To expand environment variables use $VARNAME or ${VARNAME}.
Config file format¶
The configuration file format is the usual
ini file format. It should contain
section names in square brackets and flag settings of the form
NAME = VALUE. Comments start with # characters.
A section named
[mypy]must be present. This specifies the global flags.Additional sections named
[mypy-PATTERN1,PATTERN2,...]may be present, wherePATTERN1,PATTERN2, etc., are comma-separated patterns of fully-qualified module names, with some components optionally replaced by the ‘*’ character (e.g.foo.bar,foo.bar.*,foo.*.baz). These sections specify additional flags that only apply to modules whose name matches at least one of the patterns.A pattern of the form
qualified_module_namematches only the named module, whiledotted_module_name.*matchesdotted_module_nameand any submodules (sofoo.bar.*would match all offoo.bar,foo.bar.baz, andfoo.bar.baz.quux).Patterns may also be “unstructured” wildcards, in which stars may appear in the middle of a name (e.g
site.*.migrations.*). Stars match zero or more module components (sosite.*.migrations.*can matchsite.migrations).When options conflict, the precedence order for configuration is:
Inline configuration in the source file
Sections with concrete module names (
foo.bar)Sections with “unstructured” wildcard patterns (
foo.*.baz), with sections later in the configuration file overriding sections earlier.Sections with “well-structured” wildcard patterns (
foo.bar.*), with more specific overriding more general.Command line options.
Top-level configuration file options.
The difference in precedence order between “structured” patterns (by specificity) and “unstructured” patterns (by order in the file) is unfortunate, and is subject to change in future versions.
Note
The warn_unused_configs flag may be useful to debug misspelled
section names.
Note
Configuration flags are liable to change between releases.
Per-module and global options¶
Some of the config options may be set either globally (in the [mypy] section)
or on a per-module basis (in sections like [mypy-foo.bar]).
If you set an option both globally and for a specific module, the module configuration options take precedence. This lets you set global defaults and override them on a module-by-module basis. If multiple pattern sections match a module, the options from the most specific section are used where they disagree.
Some other options, as specified in their description,
may only be set in the global section ([mypy]).
Inverting option values¶
Options that take a boolean value may be inverted by adding no_ to
their name or by (when applicable) swapping their prefix from
disallow to allow (and vice versa).
Example mypy.ini¶
Here is an example of a mypy.ini file. To use this config file, place it at the root
of your repo and run mypy.
# Global options:
[mypy]
warn_return_any = True
warn_unused_configs = True
# Per-module options:
[mypy-mycode.foo.*]
disallow_untyped_defs = True
[mypy-mycode.bar]
warn_return_any = False
[mypy-somelibrary]
ignore_missing_imports = True
This config file specifies two global options in the [mypy] section. These two
options will:
Report an error whenever a function returns a value that is inferred to have type
Any.Report any config options that are unused by mypy. (This will help us catch typos when making changes to our config file).
Next, this module specifies three per-module options. The first two options change how mypy
type checks code in mycode.foo.* and mycode.bar, which we assume here are two modules
that you wrote. The final config option changes how mypy type checks somelibrary, which we
assume here is some 3rd party library you’ve installed and are importing. These options will:
Selectively disallow untyped function definitions only within the
mycode.foopackage – that is, only for function definitions defined in themycode/foodirectory.Selectively disable the “function is returning any” warnings within
mycode.baronly. This overrides the global default we set earlier.Suppress any error messages generated when your codebase tries importing the module
somelibrary. This is useful ifsomelibraryis some 3rd party library missing type hints.
Import discovery¶
For more information, see the Import discovery section of the command line docs.
- mypy_path¶
- Type:
string
Specifies the paths to use, after trying the paths from
MYPYPATHenvironment variable. Useful if you’d like to keep stubs in your repo, along with the config file. Multiple paths are always separated with a:or,regardless of the platform. User home directory and environment variables will be expanded.Relative paths are treated relative to the working directory of the mypy command, not the config file. Use the
MYPY_CONFIG_FILE_DIRenvironment variable to refer to paths relative to the config file (e.g.mypy_path = $MYPY_CONFIG_FILE_DIR/src).This option may only be set in the global section (
[mypy]).Note: On Windows, use UNC paths to avoid using
:(e.g.\\127.0.0.1\X$\MyDirwhereXis the drive letter).
- files¶
- Type:
comma-separated list of strings
A comma-separated list of paths which should be checked by mypy if none are given on the command line. Supports recursive file globbing using
glob, where*(e.g.*.py) matches files in the current directory and**/(e.g.**/*.py) matches files in any directories below the current one. User home directory and environment variables will be expanded.This option may only be set in the global section (
[mypy]).
- modules¶
- Type:
comma-separated list of strings
A comma-separated list of packages which should be checked by mypy if none are given on the command line. Mypy will not recursively type check any submodules of the provided module.
This option may only be set in the global section (
[mypy]).
- packages¶
- Type:
comma-separated list of strings
A comma-separated list of packages which should be checked by mypy if none are given on the command line. Mypy will recursively type check any submodules of the provided package. This flag is identical to
modulesapart from this behavior.This option may only be set in the global section (
[mypy]).
- exclude¶
- Type:
regular expression
A regular expression that matches file names, directory names and paths which mypy should ignore while recursively discovering files to check. Use forward slashes (
/) as directory separators on all platforms.[mypy] exclude = (?x)( ^one\.py$ # files named "one.py" | two\.pyi$ # or files ending with "two.pyi" | ^three\. # or files starting with "three." )
Crafting a single regular expression that excludes multiple files while remaining human-readable can be a challenge. The above example demonstrates one approach.
(?x)enables theVERBOSEflag for the subsequent regular expression, whichignores most whitespace and supports comments. The above is equivalent to:(^one\.py$|two\.pyi$|^three\.).For more details, see
--exclude.This option may only be set in the global section (
[mypy]).Note
Note that the TOML equivalent differs slightly. It can be either a single string (including a multi-line string) – which is treated as a single regular expression – or an array of such strings. The following TOML examples are equivalent to the above INI example.
Array of strings:
[tool.mypy] exclude = [ "^one\\.py$", # TOML's double-quoted strings require escaping backslashes 'two\.pyi$', # but TOML's single-quoted strings do not '^three\.', ]
A single, multi-line string:
[tool.mypy] exclude = '''(?x)( ^one\.py$ # files named "one.py" | two\.pyi$ # or files ending with "two.pyi" | ^three\. # or files starting with "three." )''' # TOML's single-quoted strings do not require escaping backslashes
- namespace_packages¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
True
Enables PEP 420 style namespace packages. See the corresponding flag
--no-namespace-packagesfor more information.This option may only be set in the global section (
[mypy]).
- explicit_package_bases¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
This flag tells mypy that top-level packages will be based in either the current directory, or a member of the
MYPYPATHenvironment variable ormypy_pathconfig option. This option is only useful in the absence of __init__.py. See Mapping file paths to modules for details.This option may only be set in the global section (
[mypy]).
- ignore_missing_imports¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Suppresses error messages about imports that cannot be resolved.
If this option is used in a per-module section, the module name should match the name of the imported module, not the module containing the import statement.
- follow_imports¶
- Type:
string
- Default:
normal
Directs what to do with imports when the imported module is found as a
.pyfile and not part of the files, modules and packages provided on the command line.The four possible values are
normal,silent,skipanderror. For explanations see the discussion for the--follow-importscommand line flag.Using this option in a per-module section (potentially with a wildcard, as described at the top of this page) is a good way to prevent mypy from checking portions of your code.
If this option is used in a per-module section, the module name should match the name of the imported module, not the module containing the import statement.
- follow_imports_for_stubs¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Determines whether to respect the
follow_importssetting even for stub (.pyi) files.Used in conjunction with
follow_imports=skip, this can be used to suppress the import of a module fromtypeshed, replacing it withAny.Used in conjunction with
follow_imports=error, this can be used to make any use of a particulartypeshedmodule an error.Note
This is not supported by the mypy daemon.
- python_executable¶
- Type:
string
Specifies the path to the Python executable to inspect to collect a list of available PEP 561 packages. User home directory and environment variables will be expanded. Defaults to the executable used to run mypy.
This option may only be set in the global section (
[mypy]).
- no_site_packages¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Disables using type information in installed packages (see PEP 561). This will also disable searching for a usable Python executable. This acts the same as
--no-site-packagescommand line flag.
- no_silence_site_packages¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Enables reporting error messages generated within installed packages (see PEP 561 for more details on distributing type information). Those error messages are suppressed by default, since you are usually not able to control errors in 3rd party code.
This option may only be set in the global section (
[mypy]).
Platform configuration¶
- python_version¶
- Type:
string
Specifies the Python version used to parse and check the target program. The string should be in the format
MAJOR.MINOR– for example2.7. The default is the version of the Python interpreter used to run mypy.This option may only be set in the global section (
[mypy]).
- platform¶
- Type:
string
Specifies the OS platform for the target program, for example
darwinorwin32(meaning OS X or Windows, respectively). The default is the current platform as revealed by Python’ssys.platformvariable.This option may only be set in the global section (
[mypy]).
- always_true¶
- Type:
comma-separated list of strings
Specifies a list of variables that mypy will treat as compile-time constants that are always true.
- always_false¶
- Type:
comma-separated list of strings
Specifies a list of variables that mypy will treat as compile-time constants that are always false.
Disallow dynamic typing¶
For more information, see the Disallow dynamic typing section of the command line docs.
- disallow_any_unimported¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Disallows usage of types that come from unfollowed imports (anything imported from an unfollowed import is automatically given a type of
Any).
- disallow_any_expr¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Disallows all expressions in the module that have type
Any.
- disallow_any_decorated¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Disallows functions that have
Anyin their signature after decorator transformation.
- disallow_any_explicit¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Disallows explicit
Anyin type positions such as type annotations and generic type parameters.
- disallow_any_generics¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Disallows usage of generic types that do not specify explicit type parameters.
- disallow_subclassing_any¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Disallows subclassing a value of type
Any.
Untyped definitions and calls¶
For more information, see the Untyped definitions and calls section of the command line docs.
- disallow_untyped_calls¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Disallows calling functions without type annotations from functions with type annotations. Note that when used in per-module options, it enables/disables this check inside the module(s) specified, not for functions that come from that module(s), for example config like this:
[mypy] disallow_untyped_calls = True [mypy-some.library.*] disallow_untyped_calls = False
will disable this check inside
some.library, not for your code that importssome.library. If you want to selectively disable this check for all your code that importssome.libraryyou should instead useuntyped_calls_exclude, for example:[mypy] disallow_untyped_calls = True untyped_calls_exclude = some.library
- untyped_calls_exclude¶
- Type:
comma-separated list of strings
Selectively excludes functions and methods defined in specific packages, modules, and classes from action of
disallow_untyped_calls. This also applies to all submodules of packages (i.e. everything inside a given prefix). Note, this option does not support per-file configuration, the exclusions list is defined globally for all your code.
- disallow_untyped_defs¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Disallows defining functions without type annotations or with incomplete type annotations (a superset of
disallow_incomplete_defs).For example, it would report an error for
def f(a, b)anddef f(a: int, b).
- disallow_incomplete_defs¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Disallows defining functions with incomplete type annotations, while still allowing entirely unannotated definitions.
For example, it would report an error for
def f(a: int, b)but notdef f(a, b).
- check_untyped_defs¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Type-checks the interior of functions without type annotations.
- disallow_untyped_decorators¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Reports an error whenever a function with type annotations is decorated with a decorator without annotations.
None and Optional handling¶
For more information, see the None and Optional handling section of the command line docs.
- implicit_optional¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Causes mypy to treat arguments with a
Nonedefault value as having an implicitOptionaltype.Note: This was True by default in mypy versions 0.980 and earlier.
- strict_optional¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
True
Effectively disables checking of
Optionaltypes andNonevalues. With this option, mypy doesn’t generally check the use ofNonevalues – it is treated as compatible with every type.Warning
strict_optional = falseis evil. Avoid using it and definitely do not use it without understanding what it does.
Configuring warnings¶
For more information, see the Configuring warnings section of the command line docs.
- warn_redundant_casts¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Warns about casting an expression to its inferred type.
This option may only be set in the global section (
[mypy]).
- warn_unused_ignores¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Warns about unneeded
# type: ignorecomments.
- warn_no_return¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
True
Shows errors for missing return statements on some execution paths.
- warn_return_any¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Shows a warning when returning a value with type
Anyfrom a function declared with a non-Anyreturn type.
- warn_unreachable¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Shows a warning when encountering any code inferred to be unreachable or redundant after performing type analysis.
Suppressing errors¶
Note: these configuration options are available in the config file only. There is no analog available via the command line options.
- ignore_errors¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Ignores all non-fatal errors.
Miscellaneous strictness flags¶
For more information, see the Miscellaneous strictness flags section of the command line docs.
- allow_untyped_globals¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Causes mypy to suppress errors caused by not being able to fully infer the types of global and class variables.
- allow_redefinition¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Allows variables to be redefined with an arbitrary type, as long as the redefinition is in the same block and nesting level as the original definition. Example where this can be useful:
def process(items: list[str]) -> None: # 'items' has type list[str] items = [item.split() for item in items] # 'items' now has type list[list[str]]
The variable must be used before it can be redefined:
def process(items: list[str]) -> None: items = "mypy" # invalid redefinition to str because the variable hasn't been used yet print(items) items = "100" # valid, items now has type str items = int(items) # valid, items now has type int
- local_partial_types¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Disallows inferring variable type for
Nonefrom two assignments in different scopes. This is always implicitly enabled when using the mypy daemon.
- disable_error_code¶
- Type:
comma-separated list of strings
Allows disabling one or multiple error codes globally.
- enable_error_code¶
- Type:
comma-separated list of strings
Allows enabling one or multiple error codes globally.
Note: This option will override disabled error codes from the disable_error_code option.
- implicit_reexport¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
True
By default, imported values to a module are treated as exported and mypy allows other modules to import them. When false, mypy will not re-export unless the item is imported using from-as or is included in
__all__. Note that mypy treats stub files as if this is always disabled. For example:# This won't re-export the value from foo import bar # This will re-export it as bar and allow other modules to import it from foo import bar as bar # This will also re-export bar from foo import bar __all__ = ['bar']
- strict_concatenate¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Make arguments prepended via
Concatenatebe truly positional-only.
- strict_equality¶
- type:
boolean
- default:
False
Prohibit equality checks, identity checks, and container checks between non-overlapping types.
- strict¶
- type:
boolean
- default:
False
Enable all optional error checking flags. You can see the list of flags enabled by strict mode in the full
mypy --helpoutput.Note: the exact list of flags enabled by
strictmay change over time.
Configuring error messages¶
For more information, see the Configuring error messages section of the command line docs.
These options may only be set in the global section ([mypy]).
- show_error_context¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Prefixes each error with the relevant context.
- show_column_numbers¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Shows column numbers in error messages.
- hide_error_codes¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Hides error codes in error messages. See Error codes for more information.
- pretty¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Use visually nicer output in error messages: use soft word wrap, show source code snippets, and show error location markers.
- color_output¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
True
Shows error messages with color enabled.
- error_summary¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
True
Shows a short summary line after error messages.
- show_absolute_path¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Show absolute paths to files.
- force_uppercase_builtins¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Always use
Listinstead oflistin error messages, even on Python 3.9+.
- force_union_syntax¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Always use
Union[]andOptional[]for union types in error messages (instead of the|operator), even on Python 3.10+.
Incremental mode¶
These options may only be set in the global section ([mypy]).
- incremental¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
True
Enables incremental mode.
- cache_dir¶
- Type:
string
- Default:
.mypy_cache
Specifies the location where mypy stores incremental cache info. User home directory and environment variables will be expanded. This setting will be overridden by the
MYPY_CACHE_DIRenvironment variable.Note that the cache is only read when incremental mode is enabled but is always written to, unless the value is set to
/dev/null(UNIX) ornul(Windows).
- cache_fine_grained¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Include fine-grained dependency information in the cache for the mypy daemon.
- skip_version_check¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Makes mypy use incremental cache data even if it was generated by a different version of mypy. (By default, mypy will perform a version check and regenerate the cache if it was written by older versions of mypy.)
- skip_cache_mtime_checks¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Skip cache internal consistency checks based on mtime.
Advanced options¶
These options may only be set in the global section ([mypy]).
- plugins¶
- Type:
comma-separated list of strings
A comma-separated list of mypy plugins. See Extending mypy using plugins.
- show_traceback¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Shows traceback on fatal error.
- raise_exceptions¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Raise exception on fatal error.
- custom_typing_module¶
- Type:
string
Specifies a custom module to use as a substitute for the
typingmodule.
- custom_typeshed_dir¶
- Type:
string
This specifies the directory where mypy looks for standard library typeshed stubs, instead of the typeshed that ships with mypy. This is primarily intended to make it easier to test typeshed changes before submitting them upstream, but also allows you to use a forked version of typeshed.
User home directory and environment variables will be expanded.
Note that this doesn’t affect third-party library stubs. To test third-party stubs, for example try
MYPYPATH=stubs/six mypy ....
- warn_incomplete_stub¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Warns about missing type annotations in typeshed. This is only relevant in combination with
disallow_untyped_defsordisallow_incomplete_defs.
Report generation¶
If these options are set, mypy will generate a report in the specified format into the specified directory.
Warning
Generating reports disables incremental mode and can significantly slow down your workflow. It is recommended to enable reporting only for specific runs (e.g. in CI).
- any_exprs_report¶
- Type:
string
Causes mypy to generate a text file report documenting how many expressions of type
Anyare present within your codebase.
- cobertura_xml_report¶
- Type:
string
Causes mypy to generate a Cobertura XML type checking coverage report.
To generate this report, you must either manually install the lxml library or specify mypy installation with the setuptools extra
mypy[reports].
- html_report / xslt_html_report¶
- Type:
string
Causes mypy to generate an HTML type checking coverage report.
To generate this report, you must either manually install the lxml library or specify mypy installation with the setuptools extra
mypy[reports].
- linecount_report¶
- Type:
string
Causes mypy to generate a text file report documenting the functions and lines that are typed and untyped within your codebase.
- linecoverage_report¶
- Type:
string
Causes mypy to generate a JSON file that maps each source file’s absolute filename to a list of line numbers that belong to typed functions in that file.
- lineprecision_report¶
- Type:
string
Causes mypy to generate a flat text file report with per-module statistics of how many lines are typechecked etc.
Miscellaneous¶
These options may only be set in the global section ([mypy]).
- junit_xml¶
- Type:
string
Causes mypy to generate a JUnit XML test result document with type checking results. This can make it easier to integrate mypy with continuous integration (CI) tools.
- scripts_are_modules¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Makes script
xbecome modulexinstead of__main__. This is useful when checking multiple scripts in a single run.
- warn_unused_configs¶
- Type:
boolean
- Default:
False
Warns about per-module sections in the config file that do not match any files processed when invoking mypy. (This requires turning off incremental mode using
incremental = False.)
- verbosity¶
- Type:
integer
- Default:
0
Controls how much debug output will be generated. Higher numbers are more verbose.
Using a pyproject.toml file¶
Instead of using a mypy.ini file, a pyproject.toml file (as specified by
PEP 518) may be used instead. A few notes on doing so:
The
[mypy]section should havetool.prepended to its name:I.e.,
[mypy]would become[tool.mypy]
The module specific sections should be moved into
[[tool.mypy.overrides]]sections:For example,
[mypy-packagename]would become:
[[tool.mypy.overrides]]
module = 'packagename'
...
Multi-module specific sections can be moved into a single
[[tool.mypy.overrides]]section with a module property set to an array of modules:For example,
[mypy-packagename,packagename2]would become:
[[tool.mypy.overrides]]
module = [
'packagename',
'packagename2'
]
...
The following care should be given to values in the
pyproject.tomlfiles as compared toinifiles:Strings must be wrapped in double quotes, or single quotes if the string contains special characters
Boolean values should be all lower case
Please see the TOML Documentation for more details and information on
what is allowed in a toml file. See PEP 518 for more information on the layout
and structure of the pyproject.toml file.
Example pyproject.toml¶
Here is an example of a pyproject.toml file. To use this config file, place it at the root
of your repo (or append it to the end of an existing pyproject.toml file) and run mypy.
# mypy global options:
[tool.mypy]
python_version = "2.7"
warn_return_any = true
warn_unused_configs = true
exclude = [
'^file1\.py$', # TOML literal string (single-quotes, no escaping necessary)
"^file2\\.py$", # TOML basic string (double-quotes, backslash and other characters need escaping)
]
# mypy per-module options:
[[tool.mypy.overrides]]
module = "mycode.foo.*"
disallow_untyped_defs = true
[[tool.mypy.overrides]]
module = "mycode.bar"
warn_return_any = false
[[tool.mypy.overrides]]
module = [
"somelibrary",
"some_other_library"
]
ignore_missing_imports = true
Inline configuration¶
Mypy supports setting per-file configuration options inside files themselves
using # mypy: comments. For example:
# mypy: disallow-any-generics
Inline configuration comments take precedence over all other configuration mechanisms.
Configuration comment format¶
Flags correspond to config file flags but allow hyphens to be substituted for underscores.
Values are specified using =, but = True may be omitted:
# mypy: disallow-any-generics
# mypy: always-true=FOO
Multiple flags can be separated by commas or placed on separate lines. To include a comma as part of an option’s value, place the value inside quotes:
# mypy: disallow-untyped-defs, always-false="FOO,BAR"
Like in the configuration file, options that take a boolean value may be
inverted by adding no- to their name or by (when applicable)
swapping their prefix from disallow to allow (and vice versa):
# mypy: allow-untyped-defs, no-strict-optional
Mypy daemon (mypy server)¶
Instead of running mypy as a command-line tool, you can also run it as a long-running daemon (server) process and use a command-line client to send type-checking requests to the server. This way mypy can perform type checking much faster, since program state cached from previous runs is kept in memory and doesn’t have to be read from the file system on each run. The server also uses finer-grained dependency tracking to reduce the amount of work that needs to be done.
If you have a large codebase to check, running mypy using the mypy
daemon can be 10 or more times faster than the regular command-line
mypy tool, especially if your workflow involves running mypy
repeatedly after small edits – which is often a good idea, as this way
you’ll find errors sooner.
Note
The command-line interface of mypy daemon may change in future mypy releases.
Note
Each mypy daemon process supports one user and one set of source files, and it can only process one type checking request at a time. You can run multiple mypy daemon processes to type check multiple repositories.
Basic usage¶
The client utility dmypy is used to control the mypy daemon.
Use dmypy run -- <flags> <files> to type check a set of files
(or directories). This will launch the daemon if it is not running.
You can use almost arbitrary mypy flags after --. The daemon
will always run on the current host. Example:
dmypy run -- prog.py pkg/*.py
dmypy run will automatically restart the daemon if the
configuration or mypy version changes.
The initial run will process all the code and may take a while to finish, but subsequent runs will be quick, especially if you’ve only changed a few files. (You can use remote caching to speed up the initial run. The speedup can be significant if you have a large codebase.)
Note
Mypy 0.780 added support for following imports in dmypy (enabled by
default). This functionality is still experimental. You can use
--follow-imports=skip or --follow-imports=error to fall
back to the stable functionality. See Following imports for
details on how these work.
Note
The mypy daemon requires --local-partial-types and automatically enables it.
Daemon client commands¶
While dmypy run is sufficient for most uses, some workflows
(ones using remote caching, perhaps),
require more precise control over the lifetime of the daemon process:
dmypy stopstops the daemon.dmypy start -- <flags>starts the daemon but does not check any files. You can use almost arbitrary mypy flags after--.dmypy restart -- <flags>restarts the daemon. The flags are the same as withdmypy start. This is equivalent to a stop command followed by a start.Use
dmypy run --timeout SECONDS -- <flags>(orstartorrestart) to automatically shut down the daemon after inactivity. By default, the daemon runs until it’s explicitly stopped.dmypy check <files>checks a set of files using an already running daemon.dmypy recheckchecks the same set of files as the most recentcheckorrecheckcommand. (You can also use the--updateand--removeoptions to alter the set of files, and to define which files should be processed.)dmypy statuschecks whether a daemon is running. It prints a diagnostic and exits with0if there is a running daemon.
Use dmypy --help for help on additional commands and command-line
options not discussed here, and dmypy <command> --help for help on
command-specific options.
Additional daemon flags¶
- --status-file FILE¶
Use
FILEas the status file for storing daemon runtime state. This is normally a JSON file that contains information about daemon process and connection. The default path is.dmypy.jsonin the current working directory.
- --log-file FILE¶
Direct daemon stdout/stderr to
FILE. This is useful for debugging daemon crashes, since the server traceback is not always printed by the client. This is available for thestart,restart, andruncommands.
- --timeout TIMEOUT¶
Automatically shut down server after
TIMEOUTseconds of inactivity. This is available for thestart,restart, andruncommands.
- --update FILE¶
Re-check
FILE, or add it to the set of files being checked (and check it). This option may be repeated, and it’s only available for therecheckcommand. By default, mypy finds and checks all files changed since the previous run and files that depend on them. However, if you use this option (and/or--remove), mypy assumes that only the explicitly specified files have changed. This is only useful to speed up mypy if you type check a very large number of files, and use an external, fast file system watcher, such as watchman or watchdog, to determine which files got edited or deleted. Note: This option is never required and is only available for performance tuning.
- --remove FILE¶
Remove
FILEfrom the set of files being checked. This option may be repeated. This is only available for therecheckcommand. See--updateabove for when this may be useful. Note: This option is never required and is only available for performance tuning.
- --fswatcher-dump-file FILE¶
Collect information about the current internal file state. This is only available for the
statuscommand. This will dump JSON toFILEin the format{path: [modification_time, size, content_hash]}. This is useful for debugging the built-in file system watcher. Note: This is an internal flag and the format may change.
- --perf-stats-file FILE¶
Write performance profiling information to
FILE. This is only available for thecheck,recheck, andruncommands.
- --export-types¶
Store all expression types in memory for future use. This is useful to speed up future calls to
dmypy inspect(but uses more memory). Only valid forcheck,recheck, andruncommand.
Static inference of annotations¶
The mypy daemon supports (as an experimental feature) statically inferring
draft function and method type annotations. Use dmypy suggest FUNCTION to
generate a draft signature in the format
(param_type_1, param_type_2, ...) -> ret_type (types are included for all
arguments, including keyword-only arguments, *args and **kwargs).
This is a low-level feature intended to be used by editor integrations, IDEs, and other tools (for example, the mypy plugin for PyCharm), to automatically add annotations to source files, or to propose function signatures.
In this example, the function format_id() has no annotation:
def format_id(user):
return f"User: {user}"
root = format_id(0)
dmypy suggest uses call sites, return statements, and other heuristics (such as
looking for signatures in base classes) to infer that format_id() accepts
an int argument and returns a str. Use dmypy suggest module.format_id to
print the suggested signature for the function.
More generally, the target function may be specified in two ways:
By its fully qualified name, i.e.
[package.]module.[class.]function.By its location in a source file, i.e.
/path/to/file.py:line. The path can be absolute or relative, andlinecan refer to any line number within the function body.
This command can also be used to find a more precise alternative for an existing,
imprecise annotation with some Any types.
The following flags customize various aspects of the dmypy suggest
command.
- --json¶
Output the signature as JSON, so that PyAnnotate can read it and add the signature to the source file. Here is what the JSON looks like:
[{"func_name": "example.format_id", "line": 1, "path": "/absolute/path/to/example.py", "samples": 0, "signature": {"arg_types": ["int"], "return_type": "str"}}]
- --no-errors¶
Only produce suggestions that cause no errors in the checked code. By default, mypy will try to find the most precise type, even if it causes some type errors.
- --no-any¶
Only produce suggestions that don’t contain
Anytypes. By default mypy proposes the most precise signature found, even if it containsAnytypes.
- --flex-any FRACTION¶
Only allow some fraction of types in the suggested signature to be
Anytypes. The fraction ranges from0(same as--no-any) to1.
- --callsites¶
Only find call sites for a given function instead of suggesting a type. This will produce a list with line numbers and types of actual arguments for each call:
/path/to/file.py:line: (arg_type_1, arg_type_2, ...).
- --use-fixme NAME¶
Use a dummy name instead of plain
Anyfor types that cannot be inferred. This may be useful to emphasize to a user that a given type couldn’t be inferred and needs to be entered manually.
- --max-guesses NUMBER¶
Set the maximum number of types to try for a function (default:
64).
Statically inspect expressions¶
The daemon allows to get declared or inferred type of an expression (or other
information about an expression, such as known attributes or definition location)
using dmypy inspect LOCATION command. The location of the expression should be
specified in the format path/to/file.py:line:column[:end_line:end_column].
Both line and column are 1-based. Both start and end position are inclusive.
These rules match how mypy prints the error location in error messages.
If a span is given (i.e. all 4 numbers), then only an exactly matching expression is inspected. If only a position is given (i.e. 2 numbers, line and column), mypy will inspect all expressions, that include this position, starting from the innermost one.
Consider this Python code snippet:
def foo(x: int, longer_name: str) -> None:
x
longer_name
Here to find the type of x one needs to call dmypy inspect src.py:2:5:2:5
or dmypy inspect src.py:2:5. While for longer_name one needs to call
dmypy inspect src.py:3:5:3:15 or, for example, dmypy inspect src.py:3:10.
Please note that this command is only valid after daemon had a successful type
check (without parse errors), so that types are populated, e.g. using
dmypy check. In case where multiple expressions match the provided location,
their types are returned separated by a newline.
Important note: it is recommended to check files with --export-types
since otherwise most inspections will not work without --force-reload.
- --show INSPECTION¶
What kind of inspection to run for expression(s) found. Currently the supported inspections are:
type(default): Show the best known type of a given expression.attrs: Show which attributes are valid for an expression (e.g. for auto-completion). Format is{"Base1": ["name_1", "name_2", ...]; "Base2": ...}. Names are sorted by method resolution order. If expression refers to a module, then module attributes will be under key like"<full.module.name>".definition(experimental): Show the definition location for a name expression or member expression. Format ispath/to/file.py:line:column:Symbol. If multiple definitions are found (e.g. for a Union attribute), they are separated by comma.
- --verbose¶
Increase verbosity of types string representation (can be repeated). For example, this will print fully qualified names of instance types (like
"builtins.str"), instead of just a short name (like"str").
- --limit NUM¶
If the location is given as
line:column, this will cause daemon to return only at mostNUMinspections of innermost expressions. Value of 0 means no limit (this is the default). For example, if one callsdmypy inspect src.py:4:10 --limit=1with this codedef foo(x: int) -> str: .. def bar(x: str) -> None: ... baz: int bar(foo(baz))
This will output just one type
"int"(forbazname expression). While without the limit option, it would output all three types:"int","str", and"None".
- --include-span¶
With this option on, the daemon will prepend each inspection result with the full span of corresponding expression, formatted as
1:2:1:4 -> "int". This may be useful in case multiple expressions match a location.
- --include-kind¶
With this option on, the daemon will prepend each inspection result with the kind of corresponding expression, formatted as
NameExpr -> "int". If both this option and--include-spanare on, the kind will appear first, for exampleNameExpr:1:2:1:4 -> "int".
- --include-object-attrs¶
This will make the daemon include attributes of
object(excluded by default) in case of anattsinspection.
- --union-attrs¶
Include attributes valid for some of possible expression types (by default an intersection is returned). This is useful for union types of type variables with values. For example, with this code:
from typing import Union class A: x: int z: int class B: y: int z: int var: Union[A, B] var
The command
dmypy inspect --show attrs src.py:10:1will return{"A": ["z"], "B": ["z"]}, while with--union-attrsit will return{"A": ["x", "z"], "B": ["y", "z"]}.
- --force-reload¶
Force re-parsing and re-type-checking file before inspection. By default this is done only when needed (for example file was not loaded from cache or daemon was initially run without
--export-typesmypy option), since reloading may be slow (up to few seconds for very large files).
Using installed packages¶
Packages installed with pip can declare that they support type checking. For example, the aiohttp package has built-in support for type checking.
Packages can also provide stubs for a library. For example,
types-requests is a stub-only package that provides stubs for the
requests package.
Stub packages are usually published from typeshed, a shared repository for Python
library stubs, and have a name of form types-<library>. Note that
many stub packages are not maintained by the original maintainers of
the package.
The sections below explain how mypy can use these packages, and how you can create such packages.
Note
PEP 561 specifies how a package can declare that it supports type checking.
Note
New versions of stub packages often use type system features not
supported by older, and even fairly recent mypy versions. If you
pin to an older version of mypy (using requirements.txt, for
example), it is recommended that you also pin the versions of all
your stub package dependencies.
Note
Starting in mypy 0.900, most third-party package stubs must be installed explicitly. This decouples mypy and stub versioning, allowing stubs to updated without updating mypy. This also allows stubs not originally included with mypy to be installed. Earlier mypy versions included a fixed set of stubs for third-party packages.
Using installed packages with mypy (PEP 561)¶
Typically mypy will automatically find and use installed packages that
support type checking or provide stubs. This requires that you install
the packages in the Python environment that you use to run mypy. As
many packages don’t support type checking yet, you may also have to
install a separate stub package, usually named
types-<library>. (See Missing imports for how to deal
with libraries that don’t support type checking and are also missing
stubs.)
If you have installed typed packages in another Python installation or
environment, mypy won’t automatically find them. One option is to
install another copy of those packages in the environment in which you
installed mypy. Alternatively, you can use the
--python-executable flag to point
to the Python executable for another environment, and mypy will find
packages installed for that Python executable.
Note that mypy does not support some more advanced import features, such as zip imports and custom import hooks.
If you don’t want to use installed packages that provide type
information at all, use the --no-site-packages flag to disable searching for installed packages.
Note that stub-only packages cannot be used with MYPYPATH. If you
want mypy to find the package, it must be installed. For a package
foo, the name of the stub-only package (foo-stubs) is not a
legal package name, so mypy will not find it, unless it is installed
(see PEP 561: Stub-only Packages for
more information).
Creating PEP 561 compatible packages¶
Note
You can generally ignore this section unless you maintain a package on PyPI, or want to publish type information for an existing PyPI package.
PEP 561 describes three main ways to distribute type information:
A package has inline type annotations in the Python implementation.
A package ships stub files with type information alongside the Python implementation.
A package ships type information for another package separately as stub files (also known as a “stub-only package”).
If you want to create a stub-only package for an existing library, the simplest way is to contribute stubs to the typeshed repository, and a stub package will automatically be uploaded to PyPI.
If you would like to publish a library package to a package repository
yourself (e.g. on PyPI) for either internal or external use in type
checking, packages that supply type information via type comments or
annotations in the code should put a py.typed file in their
package directory. For example, here is a typical directory structure:
setup.py
package_a/
__init__.py
lib.py
py.typed
The setup.py file could look like this:
from setuptools import setup
setup(
name="SuperPackageA",
author="Me",
version="0.1",
package_data={"package_a": ["py.typed"]},
packages=["package_a"]
)
Some packages have a mix of stub files and runtime files. These packages also
require a py.typed file. An example can be seen below:
setup.py
package_b/
__init__.py
lib.py
lib.pyi
py.typed
The setup.py file might look like this:
from setuptools import setup
setup(
name="SuperPackageB",
author="Me",
version="0.1",
package_data={"package_b": ["py.typed", "lib.pyi"]},
packages=["package_b"]
)
In this example, both lib.py and the lib.pyi stub file exist. At
runtime, the Python interpreter will use lib.py, but mypy will use
lib.pyi instead.
If the package is stub-only (not imported at runtime), the package should have
a prefix of the runtime package name and a suffix of -stubs.
A py.typed file is not needed for stub-only packages. For example, if we
had stubs for package_c, we might do the following:
setup.py
package_c-stubs/
__init__.pyi
lib.pyi
The setup.py might look like this:
from setuptools import setup
setup(
name="SuperPackageC",
author="Me",
version="0.1",
package_data={"package_c-stubs": ["__init__.pyi", "lib.pyi"]},
packages=["package_c-stubs"]
)
The instructions above are enough to ensure that the built wheels
contain the appropriate files. However, to ensure inclusion inside the
sdist (.tar.gz archive), you may also need to modify the
inclusion rules in your MANIFEST.in:
global-include *.pyi
global-include *.typed
Extending and integrating mypy¶
Integrating mypy into another Python application¶
It is possible to integrate mypy into another Python 3 application by
importing mypy.api and calling the run function with a parameter of type list[str], containing
what normally would have been the command line arguments to mypy.
Function run returns a tuple[str, str, int], namely
(<normal_report>, <error_report>, <exit_status>), in which <normal_report>
is what mypy normally writes to sys.stdout, <error_report> is what mypy
normally writes to sys.stderr and exit_status is the exit status mypy normally
returns to the operating system.
A trivial example of using the api is the following
import sys
from mypy import api
result = api.run(sys.argv[1:])
if result[0]:
print('\nType checking report:\n')
print(result[0]) # stdout
if result[1]:
print('\nError report:\n')
print(result[1]) # stderr
print('\nExit status:', result[2])
Extending mypy using plugins¶
Python is a highly dynamic language and has extensive metaprogramming capabilities. Many popular libraries use these to create APIs that may be more flexible and/or natural for humans, but are hard to express using static types. Extending the PEP 484 type system to accommodate all existing dynamic patterns is impractical and often just impossible.
Mypy supports a plugin system that lets you customize the way mypy type checks code. This can be useful if you want to extend mypy so it can type check code that uses a library that is difficult to express using just PEP 484 types.
The plugin system is focused on improving mypy’s understanding of semantics of third party frameworks. There is currently no way to define new first class kinds of types.
Note
The plugin system is experimental and prone to change. If you want to write a mypy plugin, we recommend you start by contacting the mypy core developers on gitter. In particular, there are no guarantees about backwards compatibility.
Backwards incompatible changes may be made without a deprecation period, but we will announce them in the plugin API changes announcement issue.
Configuring mypy to use plugins¶
Plugins are Python files that can be specified in a mypy
config file using the plugins option and one of the two formats: relative or
absolute path to the plugin file, or a module name (if the plugin
is installed using pip install in the same virtual environment where mypy
is running). The two formats can be mixed, for example:
[mypy]
plugins = /one/plugin.py, other.plugin
Mypy will try to import the plugins and will look for an entry point function
named plugin. If the plugin entry point function has a different name, it
can be specified after colon:
[mypy]
plugins = custom_plugin:custom_entry_point
In the following sections we describe the basics of the plugin system with some examples. For more technical details, please read the docstrings in mypy/plugin.py in mypy source code. Also you can find good examples in the bundled plugins located in mypy/plugins.
High-level overview¶
Every entry point function should accept a single string argument
that is a full mypy version and return a subclass of mypy.plugin.Plugin:
from mypy.plugin import Plugin
class CustomPlugin(Plugin):
def get_type_analyze_hook(self, fullname: str):
# see explanation below
...
def plugin(version: str):
# ignore version argument if the plugin works with all mypy versions.
return CustomPlugin
During different phases of analyzing the code (first in semantic analysis,
and then in type checking) mypy calls plugin methods such as
get_type_analyze_hook() on user plugins. This particular method, for example,
can return a callback that mypy will use to analyze unbound types with the given
full name. See the full plugin hook method list below.
Mypy maintains a list of plugins it gets from the config file plus the default
(built-in) plugin that is always enabled. Mypy calls a method once for each
plugin in the list until one of the methods returns a non-None value.
This callback will be then used to customize the corresponding aspect of
analyzing/checking the current abstract syntax tree node.
The callback returned by the get_xxx method will be given a detailed
current context and an API to create new nodes, new types, emit error messages,
etc., and the result will be used for further processing.
Plugin developers should ensure that their plugins work well in incremental and daemon modes. In particular, plugins should not hold global state due to caching of plugin hook results.
Current list of plugin hooks¶
get_type_analyze_hook() customizes behaviour of the type analyzer. For example, PEP 484 doesn’t support defining variadic generic types:
from lib import Vector
a: Vector[int, int]
b: Vector[int, int, int]
When analyzing this code, mypy will call get_type_analyze_hook("lib.Vector"),
so the plugin can return some valid type for each variable.
get_function_hook() is used to adjust the return type of a function call. This hook will be also called for instantiation of classes. This is a good choice if the return type is too complex to be expressed by regular python typing.
get_function_signature_hook() is used to adjust the signature of a function.
get_method_hook() is the same as get_function_hook() but for methods
instead of module level functions.
get_method_signature_hook() is used to adjust the signature of a method.
This includes special Python methods except __init__() and __new__().
For example in this code:
from ctypes import Array, c_int
x: Array[c_int]
x[0] = 42
mypy will call get_method_signature_hook("ctypes.Array.__setitem__")
so that the plugin can mimic the ctypes auto-convert behavior.
get_attribute_hook() overrides instance member field lookups and property
access (not assignments, and not method calls). This hook is only called for
fields which already exist on the class. Exception: if __getattr__ or
__getattribute__ is a method on the class, the hook is called for all
fields which do not refer to methods.
get_class_attribute_hook() is similar to above, but for attributes on classes rather than instances.
Unlike above, this does not have special casing for __getattr__ or
__getattribute__.
get_class_decorator_hook() can be used to update class definition for given class decorators. For example, you can add some attributes to the class to match runtime behaviour:
from dataclasses import dataclass
@dataclass # built-in plugin adds `__init__` method here
class User:
name: str
user = User(name='example') # mypy can understand this using a plugin
get_metaclass_hook() is similar to above, but for metaclasses.
get_base_class_hook() is similar to above, but for base classes.
get_dynamic_class_hook() can be used to allow dynamic class definitions in mypy. This plugin hook is called for every assignment to a simple name where right hand side is a function call:
from lib import dynamic_class
X = dynamic_class('X', [])
For such definition, mypy will call get_dynamic_class_hook("lib.dynamic_class").
The plugin should create the corresponding mypy.nodes.TypeInfo object, and
place it into a relevant symbol table. (Instances of this class represent
classes in mypy and hold essential information such as qualified name,
method resolution order, etc.)
get_customize_class_mro_hook() can be used to modify class MRO (for example insert some entries there) before the class body is analyzed.
get_additional_deps() can be used to add new dependencies for a module. It is called before semantic analysis. For example, this can be used if a library has dependencies that are dynamically loaded based on configuration information.
report_config_data() can be used if the plugin has some sort of per-module configuration that can affect typechecking. In that case, when the configuration for a module changes, we want to invalidate mypy’s cache for that module so that it can be rechecked. This hook should be used to report to mypy any relevant configuration data, so that mypy knows to recheck the module if the configuration changes. The hooks should return data encodable as JSON.
Useful tools¶
Mypy ships mypy.plugins.proper_plugin plugin which can be useful
for plugin authors, since it finds missing get_proper_type() calls,
which is a pretty common mistake.
It is recommended to enable it is a part of your plugin’s CI.
Automatic stub generation (stubgen)¶
A stub file (see PEP 484) contains only type hints for the public interface of a module, with empty function bodies. Mypy can use a stub file instead of the real implementation to provide type information for the module. They are useful for third-party modules whose authors have not yet added type hints (and when no stubs are available in typeshed) and C extension modules (which mypy can’t directly process).
Mypy includes the stubgen tool that can automatically generate
stub files (.pyi files) for Python modules and C extension modules.
For example, consider this source file:
from other_module import dynamic
BORDER_WIDTH = 15
class Window:
parent = dynamic()
def __init__(self, width, height):
self.width = width
self.height = height
def create_empty() -> Window:
return Window(0, 0)
Stubgen can generate this stub file based on the above file:
from typing import Any
BORDER_WIDTH: int = ...
class Window:
parent: Any = ...
width: Any = ...
height: Any = ...
def __init__(self, width, height) -> None: ...
def create_empty() -> Window: ...
Stubgen generates draft stubs. The auto-generated stub files often
require some manual updates, and most types will default to Any.
The stubs will be much more useful if you add more precise type annotations,
at least for the most commonly used functionality.
The rest of this section documents the command line interface of stubgen.
Run stubgen --help for a quick summary of options.
Note
The command-line flags may change between releases.
Specifying what to stub¶
You can give stubgen paths of the source files for which you want to generate stubs:
$ stubgen foo.py bar.py
This generates stubs out/foo.pyi and out/bar.pyi. The default
output directory out can be overridden with -o DIR.
You can also pass directories, and stubgen will recursively search
them for any .py files and generate stubs for all of them:
$ stubgen my_pkg_dir
Alternatively, you can give module or package names using the
-m or -p options:
$ stubgen -m foo -m bar -p my_pkg_dir
Details of the options:
- -m MODULE, --module MODULE¶
Generate a stub file for the given module. This flag may be repeated multiple times.
Stubgen will not recursively generate stubs for any submodules of the provided module.
- -p PACKAGE, --package PACKAGE¶
Generate stubs for the given package. This flag maybe repeated multiple times.
Stubgen will recursively generate stubs for all submodules of the provided package. This flag is identical to
--moduleapart from this behavior.
Stubgen applies heuristics to avoid generating stubs for submodules that include tests or vendored third-party packages.
Specifying how to generate stubs¶
By default stubgen will try to import the target modules and packages. This allows stubgen to use runtime introspection to generate stubs for C extension modules and to improve the quality of the generated stubs. By default, stubgen will also use mypy to perform light-weight semantic analysis of any Python modules. Use the following flags to alter the default behavior:
- --no-import¶
Don’t try to import modules. Instead only use mypy’s normal search mechanism to find sources. This does not support C extension modules. This flag also disables runtime introspection functionality, which mypy uses to find the value of
__all__. As result the set of exported imported names in stubs may be incomplete. This flag is generally only useful when importing a module causes unwanted side effects, such as the running of tests. Stubgen tries to skip test modules even without this option, but this does not always work.
- --no-analysis¶
Don’t perform semantic analysis of source files. This may generate worse stubs – in particular, some module, class, and function aliases may be represented as variables with the
Anytype. This is generally only useful if semantic analysis causes a critical mypy error. Does not apply to C extension modules. Incompatible with--inspect-mode.
- --inspect-mode¶
Import and inspect modules instead of parsing source code. This is the default behavior for C modules and pyc-only packages. The flag is useful to force inspection for pure Python modules that make use of dynamically generated members that would otherwise be omitted when using the default behavior of code parsing. Implies
--no-analysisas analysis requires source code.
- --doc-dir PATH¶
Try to infer better signatures by parsing .rst documentation in
PATH. This may result in better stubs, but currently it only works for C extension modules.
Additional flags¶
- -h, --help¶
Show help message and exit.
- --ignore-errors¶
If an exception was raised during stub generation, continue to process any remaining modules instead of immediately failing with an error.
- --include-private¶
Include definitions that are considered private in stubs (with names such as
_foowith single leading underscore and no trailing underscores).
- --export-less¶
Don’t export all names imported from other modules within the same package. Instead, only export imported names that are not referenced in the module that contains the import.
- --include-docstrings¶
Include docstrings in stubs. This will add docstrings to Python function and classes stubs and to C extension function stubs.
- --search-path PATH¶
Specify module search directories, separated by colons (only used if
--no-importis given).
- -o PATH, --output PATH¶
Change the output directory. By default the stubs are written in the
./outdirectory. The output directory will be created if it doesn’t exist. Existing stubs in the output directory will be overwritten without warning.
- -v, --verbose¶
Produce more verbose output.
- -q, --quiet¶
Produce less verbose output.
Automatic stub testing (stubtest)¶
Stub files are files containing type annotations. See PEP 484 for more motivation and details.
A common problem with stub files is that they tend to diverge from the
actual implementation. Mypy includes the stubtest tool that can
automatically check for discrepancies between the stubs and the
implementation at runtime.
What stubtest does and does not do¶
Stubtest will import your code and introspect your code objects at runtime, for
example, by using the capabilities of the inspect module. Stubtest
will then analyse the stub files, and compare the two, pointing out things that
differ between stubs and the implementation at runtime.
It’s important to be aware of the limitations of this comparison. Stubtest will not make any attempt to statically analyse your actual code and relies only on dynamic runtime introspection (in particular, this approach means stubtest works well with extension modules). However, this means that stubtest has limited visibility; for instance, it cannot tell if a return type of a function is accurately typed in the stubs.
For clarity, here are some additional things stubtest can’t do:
Type check your code – use
mypyinsteadGenerate stubs – use
stubgenorpyright --createstubinsteadGenerate stubs based on running your application or test suite – use
monkeytypeinsteadApply stubs to code to produce inline types – use
retypeorlibcstinstead
In summary, stubtest works very well for ensuring basic consistency between stubs and implementation or to check for stub completeness. It’s used to test Python’s official collection of library stubs, typeshed.
Warning
stubtest will import and execute Python code from the packages it checks.
Example¶
Here’s a quick example of what stubtest can do:
$ python3 -m pip install mypy
$ cat library.py
x = "hello, stubtest"
def foo(x=None):
print(x)
$ cat library.pyi
x: int
def foo(x: int) -> None: ...
$ python3 -m mypy.stubtest library
error: library.foo is inconsistent, runtime argument "x" has a default value but stub argument does not
Stub: at line 3
def (x: builtins.int)
Runtime: in file ~/library.py:3
def (x=None)
error: library.x variable differs from runtime type Literal['hello, stubtest']
Stub: at line 1
builtins.int
Runtime:
'hello, stubtest'
Usage¶
Running stubtest can be as simple as stubtest module_to_check.
Run stubtest --help for a quick summary of options.
Stubtest must be able to import the code to be checked, so make sure that mypy
is installed in the same environment as the library to be tested. In some
cases, setting PYTHONPATH can help stubtest find the code to import.
Similarly, stubtest must be able to find the stubs to be checked. Stubtest
respects the MYPYPATH environment variable – consider using this if you
receive a complaint along the lines of “failed to find stubs”.
Note that stubtest requires mypy to be able to analyse stubs. If mypy is unable to analyse stubs, you may get an error on the lines of “not checking stubs due to mypy build errors”. In this case, you will need to mitigate those errors before stubtest will run. Despite potential overlap in errors here, stubtest is not intended as a substitute for running mypy directly.
If you wish to ignore some of stubtest’s complaints, stubtest supports a pretty handy allowlist system.
The rest of this section documents the command line interface of stubtest.
- --concise¶
Makes stubtest’s output more concise, one line per error
- --ignore-missing-stub¶
Ignore errors for stub missing things that are present at runtime
- --ignore-positional-only¶
Ignore errors for whether an argument should or shouldn’t be positional-only
- --allowlist FILE¶
Use file as an allowlist. Can be passed multiple times to combine multiple allowlists. Allowlists can be created with –generate-allowlist. Allowlists support regular expressions.
The presence of an entry in the allowlist means stubtest will not generate any errors for the corresponding definition.
- --generate-allowlist¶
Print an allowlist (to stdout) to be used with –allowlist
When introducing stubtest to an existing project, this is an easy way to silence all existing errors.
- --ignore-unused-allowlist¶
Ignore unused allowlist entries
Without this option enabled, the default is for stubtest to complain if an allowlist entry is not necessary for stubtest to pass successfully.
Note if an allowlist entry is a regex that matches the empty string, stubtest will never consider it unused. For example, to get –ignore-unused-allowlist behaviour for a single allowlist entry like
foo.baryou could add an allowlist entry(foo\.bar)?. This can be useful when an error only occurs on a specific platform.
- --mypy-config-file FILE¶
Use specified mypy config file to determine mypy plugins and mypy path
- --custom-typeshed-dir DIR¶
Use the custom typeshed in DIR
- --check-typeshed¶
Check all stdlib modules in typeshed
- --help¶
Show a help message :-)
Common issues and solutions¶
This section has examples of cases when you need to update your code to use static typing, and ideas for working around issues if mypy doesn’t work as expected. Statically typed code is often identical to normal Python code (except for type annotations), but sometimes you need to do things slightly differently.
No errors reported for obviously wrong code¶
There are several common reasons why obviously wrong code is not flagged as an error.
The function containing the error is not annotated.
Functions that
do not have any annotations (neither for any argument nor for the
return type) are not type-checked, and even the most blatant type
errors (e.g. 2 + 'a') pass silently. The solution is to add
annotations. Where that isn’t possible, functions without annotations
can be checked using --check-untyped-defs.
Example:
def foo(a):
return '(' + a.split() + ')' # No error!
This gives no error even though a.split() is “obviously” a list
(the author probably meant a.strip()). The error is reported
once you add annotations:
def foo(a: str) -> str:
return '(' + a.split() + ')'
# error: Unsupported operand types for + ("str" and "list[str]")
If you don’t know what types to add, you can use Any, but beware:
One of the values involved has type ‘Any’.
Extending the above
example, if we were to leave out the annotation for a, we’d get
no error:
def foo(a) -> str:
return '(' + a.split() + ')' # No error!
The reason is that if the type of a is unknown, the type of
a.split() is also unknown, so it is inferred as having type
Any, and it is no error to add a string to an Any.
If you’re having trouble debugging such situations, reveal_type() might come in handy.
Note that sometimes library stubs with imprecise type information
can be a source of Any values.
__init__ method has no annotated
arguments and no return type annotation.
This is basically a combination of the two cases above, in that __init__
without annotations can cause Any types leak into instance variables:
class Bad:
def __init__(self):
self.value = "asdf"
1 + "asdf" # No error!
bad = Bad()
bad.value + 1 # No error!
reveal_type(bad) # Revealed type is "__main__.Bad"
reveal_type(bad.value) # Revealed type is "Any"
class Good:
def __init__(self) -> None: # Explicitly return None
self.value = value
Some imports may be silently ignored.
A common source of unexpected Any values is the
--ignore-missing-imports flag.
When you use --ignore-missing-imports,
any imported module that cannot be found is silently replaced with Any.
To help debug this, simply leave out
--ignore-missing-imports.
As mentioned in Missing imports, setting ignore_missing_imports=True
on a per-module basis will make bad surprises less likely and is highly encouraged.
Use of the --follow-imports=skip flags can also
cause problems. Use of these flags is strongly discouraged and only required in
relatively niche situations. See Following imports for more information.
mypy considers some of your code unreachable.
See Unreachable code for more information.
A function annotated as returning a non-optional type returns ‘None’ and mypy doesn’t complain.
def foo() -> str:
return None # No error!
You may have disabled strict optional checking (see –no-strict-optional for more).
Spurious errors and locally silencing the checker¶
You can use a # type: ignore comment to silence the type checker
on a particular line. For example, let’s say our code is using
the C extension module frobnicate, and there’s no stub available.
Mypy will complain about this, as it has no information about the
module:
import frobnicate # Error: No module "frobnicate"
frobnicate.start()
You can add a # type: ignore comment to tell mypy to ignore this
error:
import frobnicate # type: ignore
frobnicate.start() # Okay!
The second line is now fine, since the ignore comment causes the name
frobnicate to get an implicit Any type.
Note
You can use the form # type: ignore[<code>] to only ignore
specific errors on the line. This way you are less likely to
silence unexpected errors that are not safe to ignore, and this
will also document what the purpose of the comment is. See
Error codes for more information.
Note
The # type: ignore comment will only assign the implicit Any
type if mypy cannot find information about that particular module. So,
if we did have a stub available for frobnicate then mypy would
ignore the # type: ignore comment and typecheck the stub as usual.
Another option is to explicitly annotate values with type Any –
mypy will let you perform arbitrary operations on Any
values. Sometimes there is no more precise type you can use for a
particular value, especially if you use dynamic Python features
such as __getattr__:
class Wrapper:
...
def __getattr__(self, a: str) -> Any:
return getattr(self._wrapped, a)
Finally, you can create a stub file (.pyi) for a file that
generates spurious errors. Mypy will only look at the stub file
and ignore the implementation, since stub files take precedence
over .py files.
Ignoring a whole file¶
To only ignore errors, use a top-level
# mypy: ignore-errorscomment instead.To only ignore errors with a specific error code, use a top-level
# mypy: disable-error-code="..."comment. Example:# mypy: disable-error-code="truthy-bool, ignore-without-code"To replace the contents of a module with
Any, use a per-modulefollow_imports = skip. See Following imports for details.
Note that a # type: ignore comment at the top of a module (before any statements,
including imports or docstrings) has the effect of ignoring the entire contents of the module.
This behaviour can be surprising and result in
“Module … has no attribute … [attr-defined]” errors.
Issues with code at runtime¶
Idiomatic use of type annotations can sometimes run up against what a given version of Python considers legal code. These can result in some of the following errors when trying to run your code:
ImportErrorfrom circular importsNameError: name "X" is not definedfrom forward referencesTypeError: 'type' object is not subscriptablefrom types that are not generic at runtimeImportErrororModuleNotFoundErrorfrom use of stub definitions not available at runtimeTypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for |: 'type' and 'type'from use of new syntax
For dealing with these, see Annotation issues at runtime.
Mypy runs are slow¶
If your mypy runs feel slow, you should probably use the mypy daemon, which can speed up incremental mypy runtimes by a factor of 10 or more. Remote caching can make cold mypy runs several times faster.
Types of empty collections¶
You often need to specify the type when you assign an empty list or dict to a new variable, as mentioned earlier:
a: list[int] = []
Without the annotation mypy can’t always figure out the
precise type of a.
You can use a simple empty list literal in a dynamically typed function (as the
type of a would be implicitly Any and need not be inferred), if type
of the variable has been declared or inferred before, or if you perform a simple
modification operation in the same scope (such as append for a list):
a = [] # Okay because followed by append, inferred type list[int]
for i in range(n):
a.append(i * i)
However, in more complex cases an explicit type annotation can be required (mypy will tell you this). Often the annotation can make your code easier to understand, so it doesn’t only help mypy but everybody who is reading the code!
Redefinitions with incompatible types¶
Each name within a function only has a single ‘declared’ type. You can
reuse for loop indices etc., but if you want to use a variable with
multiple types within a single function, you may need to instead use
multiple variables (or maybe declare the variable with an Any type).
def f() -> None:
n = 1
...
n = 'x' # error: Incompatible types in assignment (expression has type "str", variable has type "int")
Note
Using the --allow-redefinition
flag can suppress this error in several cases.
Note that you can redefine a variable with a more precise or a more
concrete type. For example, you can redefine a sequence (which does
not support sort()) as a list and sort it in-place:
def f(x: Sequence[int]) -> None:
# Type of x is Sequence[int] here; we don't know the concrete type.
x = list(x)
# Type of x is list[int] here.
x.sort() # Okay!
See Type narrowing for more information.
Invariance vs covariance¶
Most mutable generic collections are invariant, and mypy considers all user-defined generic classes invariant by default (see Variance of generic types for motivation). This could lead to some unexpected errors when combined with type inference. For example:
class A: ...
class B(A): ...
lst = [A(), A()] # Inferred type is list[A]
new_lst = [B(), B()] # inferred type is list[B]
lst = new_lst # mypy will complain about this, because List is invariant
Possible strategies in such situations are:
Use an explicit type annotation:
new_lst: list[A] = [B(), B()] lst = new_lst # OK
Make a copy of the right hand side:
lst = list(new_lst) # Also OK
Use immutable collections as annotations whenever possible:
def f_bad(x: list[A]) -> A: return x[0] f_bad(new_lst) # Fails def f_good(x: Sequence[A]) -> A: return x[0] f_good(new_lst) # OK
Declaring a supertype as variable type¶
Sometimes the inferred type is a subtype (subclass) of the desired type. The type inference uses the first assignment to infer the type of a name:
class Shape: ...
class Circle(Shape): ...
class Triangle(Shape): ...
shape = Circle() # mypy infers the type of shape to be Circle
shape = Triangle() # error: Incompatible types in assignment (expression has type "Triangle", variable has type "Circle")
You can just give an explicit type for the variable in cases such the above example:
shape: Shape = Circle() # The variable s can be any Shape, not just Circle
shape = Triangle() # OK
Complex type tests¶
Mypy can usually infer the types correctly when using isinstance,
issubclass,
or type(obj) is some_class type tests,
and even user-defined type guards,
but for other kinds of checks you may need to add an
explicit type cast:
from typing import Sequence, cast
def find_first_str(a: Sequence[object]) -> str:
index = next((i for i, s in enumerate(a) if isinstance(s, str)), -1)
if index < 0:
raise ValueError('No str found')
found = a[index] # Has type "object", despite the fact that we know it is "str"
return cast(str, found) # We need an explicit cast to make mypy happy
Alternatively, you can use an assert statement together with some
of the supported type inference techniques:
def find_first_str(a: Sequence[object]) -> str:
index = next((i for i, s in enumerate(a) if isinstance(s, str)), -1)
if index < 0:
raise ValueError('No str found')
found = a[index] # Has type "object", despite the fact that we know it is "str"
assert isinstance(found, str) # Now, "found" will be narrowed to "str"
return found # No need for the explicit "cast()" anymore
Note
Note that the object type used in the above example is similar
to Object in Java: it only supports operations defined for all
objects, such as equality and isinstance(). The type Any,
in contrast, supports all operations, even if they may fail at
runtime. The cast above would have been unnecessary if the type of
o was Any.
Note
You can read more about type narrowing techniques here.
Type inference in Mypy is designed to work well in common cases, to be predictable and to let the type checker give useful error messages. More powerful type inference strategies often have complex and difficult-to-predict failure modes and could result in very confusing error messages. The tradeoff is that you as a programmer sometimes have to give the type checker a little help.
Python version and system platform checks¶
Mypy supports the ability to perform Python version checks and platform checks (e.g. Windows vs Posix), ignoring code paths that won’t be run on the targeted Python version or platform. This allows you to more effectively typecheck code that supports multiple versions of Python or multiple operating systems.
More specifically, mypy will understand the use of sys.version_info and
sys.platform checks within if/elif/else statements. For example:
import sys
# Distinguishing between different versions of Python:
if sys.version_info >= (3, 8):
# Python 3.8+ specific definitions and imports
else:
# Other definitions and imports
# Distinguishing between different operating systems:
if sys.platform.startswith("linux"):
# Linux-specific code
elif sys.platform == "darwin":
# Mac-specific code
elif sys.platform == "win32":
# Windows-specific code
else:
# Other systems
As a special case, you can also use one of these checks in a top-level
(unindented) assert; this makes mypy skip the rest of the file.
Example:
import sys
assert sys.platform != 'win32'
# The rest of this file doesn't apply to Windows.
Some other expressions exhibit similar behavior; in particular,
TYPE_CHECKING, variables named MYPY, and any variable
whose name is passed to --always-true or --always-false.
(However, True and False are not treated specially!)
Note
Mypy currently does not support more complex checks, and does not assign
any special meaning when assigning a sys.version_info or sys.platform
check to a variable. This may change in future versions of mypy.
By default, mypy will use your current version of Python and your current
operating system as default values for sys.version_info and
sys.platform.
To target a different Python version, use the --python-version X.Y flag.
For example, to verify your code typechecks if were run using Python 3.8, pass
in --python-version 3.8 from the command line. Note that you do not need
to have Python 3.8 installed to perform this check.
To target a different operating system, use the --platform PLATFORM flag.
For example, to verify your code typechecks if it were run in Windows, pass
in --platform win32. See the documentation for sys.platform
for examples of valid platform parameters.
Displaying the type of an expression¶
You can use reveal_type(expr) to ask mypy to display the inferred
static type of an expression. This can be useful when you don’t quite
understand how mypy handles a particular piece of code. Example:
reveal_type((1, 'hello')) # Revealed type is "tuple[builtins.int, builtins.str]"
You can also use reveal_locals() at any line in a file
to see the types of all local variables at once. Example:
a = 1
b = 'one'
reveal_locals()
# Revealed local types are:
# a: builtins.int
# b: builtins.str
Note
reveal_type and reveal_locals are only understood by mypy and
don’t exist in Python. If you try to run your program, you’ll have to
remove any reveal_type and reveal_locals calls before you can
run your code. Both are always available and you don’t need to import
them.
Silencing linters¶
In some cases, linters will complain about unused imports or code. In these cases, you can silence them with a comment after type comments, or on the same line as the import:
# to silence complaints about unused imports
from typing import List # noqa
a = None # type: List[int]
To silence the linter on the same line as a type comment put the linter comment after the type comment:
a = some_complex_thing() # type: ignore # noqa
Covariant subtyping of mutable protocol members is rejected¶
Mypy rejects this because this is potentially unsafe. Consider this example:
from typing import Protocol
class P(Protocol):
x: float
def fun(arg: P) -> None:
arg.x = 3.14
class C:
x = 42
c = C()
fun(c) # This is not safe
c.x << 5 # Since this will fail!
To work around this problem consider whether “mutating” is actually part
of a protocol. If not, then one can use a @property in
the protocol definition:
from typing import Protocol
class P(Protocol):
@property
def x(self) -> float:
pass
def fun(arg: P) -> None:
...
class C:
x = 42
fun(C()) # OK
Dealing with conflicting names¶
Suppose you have a class with a method whose name is the same as an imported (or built-in) type, and you want to use the type in another method signature. E.g.:
class Message:
def bytes(self):
...
def register(self, path: bytes): # error: Invalid type "mod.Message.bytes"
...
The third line elicits an error because mypy sees the argument type
bytes as a reference to the method by that name. Other than
renaming the method, a workaround is to use an alias:
bytes_ = bytes
class Message:
def bytes(self):
...
def register(self, path: bytes_):
...
Using a development mypy build¶
You can install the latest development version of mypy from source. Clone the
mypy repository on GitHub, and then run
pip install locally:
git clone https://github.com/python/mypy.git
cd mypy
python3 -m pip install --upgrade .
To install a development version of mypy that is mypyc-compiled, see the instructions at the mypyc wheels repo.
Variables vs type aliases¶
Mypy has both type aliases and variables with types like type[...]. These are
subtly different, and it’s important to understand how they differ to avoid pitfalls.
A variable with type
type[...]is defined using an assignment with an explicit type annotation:class A: ... tp: type[A] = A
You can define a type alias using an assignment without an explicit type annotation at the top level of a module:
class A: ... Alias = A
You can also use
TypeAlias(PEP 613) to define an explicit type alias:from typing import TypeAlias # "from typing_extensions" in Python 3.9 and earlier class A: ... Alias: TypeAlias = A
You should always use
TypeAliasto define a type alias in a class body or inside a function.
The main difference is that the target of an alias is precisely known statically, and this means that they can be used in type annotations and other type contexts. Type aliases can’t be defined conditionally (unless using supported Python version and platform checks):
class A: ... class B: ... if random() > 0.5: Alias = A else: # error: Cannot assign multiple types to name "Alias" without an # explicit "Type[...]" annotation Alias = B tp: type[object] # "tp" is a variable with a type object value if random() > 0.5: tp = A else: tp = B # This is OK def fun1(x: Alias) -> None: ... # OK def fun2(x: tp) -> None: ... # Error: "tp" is not valid as a type
Incompatible overrides¶
It’s unsafe to override a method with a more specific argument type, as it violates the Liskov substitution principle. For return types, it’s unsafe to override a method with a more general return type.
Other incompatible signature changes in method overrides, such as adding an extra required parameter, or removing an optional parameter, will also generate errors. The signature of a method in a subclass should accept all valid calls to the base class method. Mypy treats a subclass as a subtype of the base class. An instance of a subclass is valid everywhere where an instance of the base class is valid.
This example demonstrates both safe and unsafe overrides:
from typing import Sequence, List, Iterable
class A:
def test(self, t: Sequence[int]) -> Sequence[str]:
...
class GeneralizedArgument(A):
# A more general argument type is okay
def test(self, t: Iterable[int]) -> Sequence[str]: # OK
...
class NarrowerArgument(A):
# A more specific argument type isn't accepted
def test(self, t: List[int]) -> Sequence[str]: # Error
...
class NarrowerReturn(A):
# A more specific return type is fine
def test(self, t: Sequence[int]) -> List[str]: # OK
...
class GeneralizedReturn(A):
# A more general return type is an error
def test(self, t: Sequence[int]) -> Iterable[str]: # Error
...
You can use # type: ignore[override] to silence the error. Add it
to the line that generates the error, if you decide that type safety is
not necessary:
class NarrowerArgument(A):
def test(self, t: List[int]) -> Sequence[str]: # type: ignore[override]
...
Unreachable code¶
Mypy may consider some code as unreachable, even if it might not be immediately obvious why. It’s important to note that mypy will not type check such code. Consider this example:
class Foo:
bar: str = ''
def bar() -> None:
foo: Foo = Foo()
return
x: int = 'abc' # Unreachable -- no error
It’s easy to see that any statement after return is unreachable,
and hence mypy will not complain about the mis-typed code below
it. For a more subtle example, consider this code:
class Foo:
bar: str = ''
def bar() -> None:
foo: Foo = Foo()
assert foo.bar is None
x: int = 'abc' # Unreachable -- no error
Again, mypy will not report any errors. The type of foo.bar is
str, and mypy reasons that it can never be None. Hence the
assert statement will always fail and the statement below will
never be executed. (Note that in Python, None is not an empty
reference but an object of type None.)
In this example mypy will go on to check the last line and report an error, since mypy thinks that the condition could be either True or False:
class Foo:
bar: str = ''
def bar() -> None:
foo: Foo = Foo()
if not foo.bar:
return
x: int = 'abc' # Reachable -- error
If you use the --warn-unreachable flag, mypy will generate
an error about each unreachable code block.
Narrowing and inner functions¶
Because closures in Python are late-binding (https://docs.python-guide.org/writing/gotchas/#late-binding-closures), mypy will not narrow the type of a captured variable in an inner function. This is best understood via an example:
def foo(x: Optional[int]) -> Callable[[], int]:
if x is None:
x = 5
print(x + 1) # mypy correctly deduces x must be an int here
def inner() -> int:
return x + 1 # but (correctly) complains about this line
x = None # because x could later be assigned None
return inner
inner = foo(5)
inner() # this will raise an error when called
To get this code to type check, you could assign y = x after x has been
narrowed, and use y in the inner function, or add an assert in the inner
function.
Supported Python features¶
A list of unsupported Python features is maintained in the mypy wiki:
Runtime definition of methods and functions¶
By default, mypy will complain if you add a function to a class
or module outside its definition – but only if this is visible to the
type checker. This only affects static checking, as mypy performs no
additional type checking at runtime. You can easily work around
this. For example, you can use dynamically typed code or values with
Any types, or you can use setattr() or other introspection
features. However, you need to be careful if you decide to do this. If
used indiscriminately, you may have difficulty using static typing
effectively, since the type checker cannot see functions defined at
runtime.
Error codes¶
Mypy can optionally display an error code such as [attr-defined]
after each error message. Error codes serve two purposes:
It’s possible to silence specific error codes on a line using
# type: ignore[code]. This way you won’t accidentally ignore other, potentially more serious errors.The error code can be used to find documentation about the error. The next two topics (Error codes enabled by default and Error codes for optional checks) document the various error codes mypy can report.
Most error codes are shared between multiple related error messages. Error codes may change in future mypy releases.
Silencing errors based on error codes¶
You can use a special comment # type: ignore[code, ...] to only
ignore errors with a specific error code (or codes) on a particular
line. This can be used even if you have not configured mypy to show
error codes.
This example shows how to ignore an error about an imported name mypy thinks is undefined:
# 'foo' is defined in 'foolib', even though mypy can't see the
# definition.
from foolib import foo # type: ignore[attr-defined]
Enabling/disabling specific error codes globally¶
There are command-line flags and config file settings for enabling
certain optional error codes, such as --disallow-untyped-defs,
which enables the no-untyped-def error code.
You can use --enable-error-code
and --disable-error-code
to enable or disable specific error codes that don’t have a dedicated
command-line flag or config file setting.
Per-module enabling/disabling error codes¶
You can use configuration file sections to enable or
disable specific error codes only in some modules. For example, this mypy.ini
config will enable non-annotated empty containers in tests, while keeping
other parts of code checked in strict mode:
[mypy]
strict = True
[mypy-tests.*]
allow_untyped_defs = True
allow_untyped_calls = True
disable_error_code = var-annotated, has-type
Note that per-module enabling/disabling acts as override over the global options. So that you don’t need to repeat the error code lists for each module if you have them in global config section. For example:
[mypy]
enable_error_code = truthy-bool, ignore-without-code, unused-awaitable
[mypy-extensions.*]
disable_error_code = unused-awaitable
The above config will allow unused awaitables in extension modules, but will still keep the other two error codes enabled. The overall logic is following:
Command line and/or config main section set global error codes
Individual config sections adjust them per glob/module
Inline
# mypy: disable-error-code="..."comments can further adjust them for a specific module. For example:# mypy: disable-error-code="truthy-bool, ignore-without-code"
So one can e.g. enable some code globally, disable it for all tests in the corresponding config section, and then re-enable it with an inline comment in some specific test.
Subcodes of error codes¶
In some cases, mostly for backwards compatibility reasons, an error
code may be covered also by another, wider error code. For example, an error with
code [method-assign] can be ignored by # type: ignore[assignment].
Similar logic works for disabling error codes globally. If a given error code
is a subcode of another one, it will be mentioned in the documentation for the narrower
code. This hierarchy is not nested: there cannot be subcodes of other
subcodes.
Requiring error codes¶
It’s possible to require error codes be specified in type: ignore comments.
See ignore-without-code for more information.
Error codes enabled by default¶
This section documents various errors codes that mypy can generate with default options. See Error codes for general documentation about error codes. Error codes for optional checks documents additional error codes that you can enable.
Check that attribute exists [attr-defined]¶
Mypy checks that an attribute is defined in the target class or module
when using the dot operator. This applies to both getting and setting
an attribute. New attributes are defined by assignments in the class
body, or assignments to self.x in methods. These assignments don’t
generate attr-defined errors.
Example:
class Resource:
def __init__(self, name: str) -> None:
self.name = name
r = Resource('x')
print(r.name) # OK
print(r.id) # Error: "Resource" has no attribute "id" [attr-defined]
r.id = 5 # Error: "Resource" has no attribute "id" [attr-defined]
This error code is also generated if an imported name is not defined
in the module in a from ... import statement (as long as the
target module can be found):
# Error: Module "os" has no attribute "non_existent" [attr-defined]
from os import non_existent
A reference to a missing attribute is given the Any type. In the
above example, the type of non_existent will be Any, which can
be important if you silence the error.
Check that attribute exists in each union item [union-attr]¶
If you access the attribute of a value with a union type, mypy checks that the attribute is defined for every type in that union. Otherwise the operation can fail at runtime. This also applies to optional types.
Example:
from typing import Union
class Cat:
def sleep(self) -> None: ...
def miaow(self) -> None: ...
class Dog:
def sleep(self) -> None: ...
def follow_me(self) -> None: ...
def func(animal: Union[Cat, Dog]) -> None:
# OK: 'sleep' is defined for both Cat and Dog
animal.sleep()
# Error: Item "Cat" of "Union[Cat, Dog]" has no attribute "follow_me" [union-attr]
animal.follow_me()
You can often work around these errors by using assert isinstance(obj, ClassName)
or assert obj is not None to tell mypy that you know that the type is more specific
than what mypy thinks.
Check that name is defined [name-defined]¶
Mypy expects that all references to names have a corresponding definition in an active scope, such as an assignment, function definition or an import. This can catch missing definitions, missing imports, and typos.
This example accidentally calls sort() instead of sorted():
x = sort([3, 2, 4]) # Error: Name "sort" is not defined [name-defined]
Check that a variable is not used before it’s defined [used-before-def]¶
Mypy will generate an error if a name is used before it’s defined. While the name-defined check will catch issues with names that are undefined, it will not flag if a variable is used and then defined later in the scope. used-before-def check will catch such cases.
Example:
print(x) # Error: Name "x" is used before definition [used-before-def]
x = 123
Check arguments in calls [call-arg]¶
Mypy expects that the number and names of arguments match the called function.
Note that argument type checks have a separate error code arg-type.
Example:
from typing import Sequence
def greet(name: str) -> None:
print('hello', name)
greet('jack') # OK
greet('jill', 'jack') # Error: Too many arguments for "greet" [call-arg]
Check argument types [arg-type]¶
Mypy checks that argument types in a call match the declared argument types in the signature of the called function (if one exists).
Example:
from typing import Optional
def first(x: list[int]) -> Optional[int]:
return x[0] if x else 0
t = (5, 4)
# Error: Argument 1 to "first" has incompatible type "tuple[int, int]";
# expected "list[int]" [arg-type]
print(first(t))
Check calls to overloaded functions [call-overload]¶
When you call an overloaded function, mypy checks that at least one of the signatures of the overload items match the argument types in the call.
Example:
from typing import overload, Optional
@overload
def inc_maybe(x: None) -> None: ...
@overload
def inc_maybe(x: int) -> int: ...
def inc_maybe(x: Optional[int]) -> Optional[int]:
if x is None:
return None
else:
return x + 1
inc_maybe(None) # OK
inc_maybe(5) # OK
# Error: No overload variant of "inc_maybe" matches argument type "float" [call-overload]
inc_maybe(1.2)
Check validity of types [valid-type]¶
Mypy checks that each type annotation and any expression that represents a type is a valid type. Examples of valid types include classes, union types, callable types, type aliases, and literal types. Examples of invalid types include bare integer literals, functions, variables, and modules.
This example incorrectly uses the function log as a type:
def log(x: object) -> None:
print('log:', repr(x))
# Error: Function "t.log" is not valid as a type [valid-type]
def log_all(objs: list[object], f: log) -> None:
for x in objs:
f(x)
You can use Callable as the type for callable objects:
from typing import Callable
# OK
def log_all(objs: list[object], f: Callable[[object], None]) -> None:
for x in objs:
f(x)
Require annotation if variable type is unclear [var-annotated]¶
In some cases mypy can’t infer the type of a variable without an
explicit annotation. Mypy treats this as an error. This typically
happens when you initialize a variable with an empty collection or
None. If mypy can’t infer the collection item type, mypy replaces
any parts of the type it couldn’t infer with Any and generates an
error.
Example with an error:
class Bundle:
def __init__(self) -> None:
# Error: Need type annotation for "items"
# (hint: "items: list[<type>] = ...") [var-annotated]
self.items = []
reveal_type(Bundle().items) # list[Any]
To address this, we add an explicit annotation:
class Bundle:
def __init__(self) -> None:
self.items: list[str] = [] # OK
reveal_type(Bundle().items) # list[str]
Check validity of overrides [override]¶
Mypy checks that an overridden method or attribute is compatible with the base class. A method in a subclass must accept all arguments that the base class method accepts, and the return type must conform to the return type in the base class (Liskov substitution principle).
Argument types can be more general is a subclass (i.e., they can vary
contravariantly). The return type can be narrowed in a subclass
(i.e., it can vary covariantly). It’s okay to define additional
arguments in a subclass method, as long all extra arguments have default
values or can be left out (*args, for example).
Example:
from typing import Optional, Union
class Base:
def method(self,
arg: int) -> Optional[int]:
...
class Derived(Base):
def method(self,
arg: Union[int, str]) -> int: # OK
...
class DerivedBad(Base):
# Error: Argument 1 of "method" is incompatible with "Base" [override]
def method(self,
arg: bool) -> int:
...
Check that function returns a value [return]¶
If a function has a non-None return type, mypy expects that the
function always explicitly returns a value (or raises an exception).
The function should not fall off the end of the function, since this
is often a bug.
Example:
# Error: Missing return statement [return]
def show(x: int) -> int:
print(x)
# Error: Missing return statement [return]
def pred1(x: int) -> int:
if x > 0:
return x - 1
# OK
def pred2(x: int) -> int:
if x > 0:
return x - 1
else:
raise ValueError('not defined for zero')
Check that functions don’t have empty bodies outside stubs [empty-body]¶
This error code is similar to the [return] code but is emitted specifically
for functions and methods with empty bodies (if they are annotated with
non-trivial return type). Such a distinction exists because in some contexts
an empty body can be valid, for example for an abstract method or in a stub
file. Also old versions of mypy used to unconditionally allow functions with
empty bodies, so having a dedicated error code simplifies cross-version
compatibility.
Note that empty bodies are allowed for methods in protocols, and such methods are considered implicitly abstract:
from abc import abstractmethod
from typing import Protocol
class RegularABC:
@abstractmethod
def foo(self) -> int:
pass # OK
def bar(self) -> int:
pass # Error: Missing return statement [empty-body]
class Proto(Protocol):
def bar(self) -> int:
pass # OK
Check that return value is compatible [return-value]¶
Mypy checks that the returned value is compatible with the type signature of the function.
Example:
def func(x: int) -> str:
# Error: Incompatible return value type (got "int", expected "str") [return-value]
return x + 1
Check types in assignment statement [assignment]¶
Mypy checks that the assigned expression is compatible with the assignment target (or targets).
Example:
class Resource:
def __init__(self, name: str) -> None:
self.name = name
r = Resource('A')
r.name = 'B' # OK
# Error: Incompatible types in assignment (expression has type "int",
# variable has type "str") [assignment]
r.name = 5
Check that assignment target is not a method [method-assign]¶
In general, assigning to a method on class object or instance (a.k.a. monkey-patching) is ambiguous in terms of types, since Python’s static type system cannot express the difference between bound and unbound callable types. Consider this example:
class A:
def f(self) -> None: pass
def g(self) -> None: pass
def h(self: A) -> None: pass
A.f = h # Type of h is Callable[[A], None]
A().f() # This works
A.f = A().g # Type of A().g is Callable[[], None]
A().f() # ...but this also works at runtime
To prevent the ambiguity, mypy will flag both assignments by default. If this error code is disabled, mypy will treat the assigned value in all method assignments as unbound, so only the second assignment will still generate an error.
Note
This error code is a subcode of the more general [assignment] code.
Check type variable values [type-var]¶
Mypy checks that value of a type variable is compatible with a value restriction or the upper bound type.
Example:
from typing import TypeVar
T1 = TypeVar('T1', int, float)
def add(x: T1, y: T1) -> T1:
return x + y
add(4, 5.5) # OK
# Error: Value of type variable "T1" of "add" cannot be "str" [type-var]
add('x', 'y')
Check uses of various operators [operator]¶
Mypy checks that operands support a binary or unary operation, such as
+ or ~. Indexing operations are so common that they have their
own error code index (see below).
Example:
# Error: Unsupported operand types for + ("int" and "str") [operator]
1 + 'x'
Check indexing operations [index]¶
Mypy checks that the indexed value in indexing operation such as
x[y] supports indexing, and that the index expression has a valid
type.
Example:
a = {'x': 1, 'y': 2}
a['x'] # OK
# Error: Invalid index type "int" for "dict[str, int]"; expected type "str" [index]
print(a[1])
# Error: Invalid index type "bytes" for "dict[str, int]"; expected type "str" [index]
a[b'x'] = 4
Check list items [list-item]¶
When constructing a list using [item, ...], mypy checks that each item
is compatible with the list type that is inferred from the surrounding
context.
Example:
# Error: List item 0 has incompatible type "int"; expected "str" [list-item]
a: list[str] = [0]
Check dict items [dict-item]¶
When constructing a dictionary using {key: value, ...} or dict(key=value, ...),
mypy checks that each key and value is compatible with the dictionary type that is
inferred from the surrounding context.
Example:
# Error: Dict entry 0 has incompatible type "str": "str"; expected "str": "int" [dict-item]
d: dict[str, int] = {'key': 'value'}
Check TypedDict items [typeddict-item]¶
When constructing a TypedDict object, mypy checks that each key and value is compatible with the TypedDict type that is inferred from the surrounding context.
When getting a TypedDict item, mypy checks that the key exists. When assigning to a TypedDict, mypy checks that both the key and the value are valid.
Example:
from typing import TypedDict
class Point(TypedDict):
x: int
y: int
# Error: Incompatible types (expression has type "float",
# TypedDict item "x" has type "int") [typeddict-item]
p: Point = {'x': 1.2, 'y': 4}
Check TypedDict Keys [typeddict-unknown-key]¶
When constructing a TypedDict object, mypy checks whether the definition contains unknown keys, to catch invalid keys and misspellings. On the other hand, mypy will not generate an error when a previously constructed TypedDict value with extra keys is passed to a function as an argument, since TypedDict values support structural subtyping (“static duck typing”) and the keys are assumed to have been validated at the point of construction. Example:
from typing import TypedDict
class Point(TypedDict):
x: int
y: int
class Point3D(Point):
z: int
def add_x_coordinates(a: Point, b: Point) -> int:
return a["x"] + b["x"]
a: Point = {"x": 1, "y": 4}
b: Point3D = {"x": 2, "y": 5, "z": 6}
add_x_coordinates(a, b) # OK
# Error: Extra key "z" for TypedDict "Point" [typeddict-unknown-key]
add_x_coordinates(a, {"x": 1, "y": 4, "z": 5})
Setting a TypedDict item using an unknown key will also generate this error, since it could be a misspelling:
a: Point = {"x": 1, "y": 2}
# Error: Extra key "z" for TypedDict "Point" [typeddict-unknown-key]
a["z"] = 3
Reading an unknown key will generate the more general (and serious)
typeddict-item error, which is likely to result in an exception at
runtime:
a: Point = {"x": 1, "y": 2}
# Error: TypedDict "Point" has no key "z" [typeddict-item]
_ = a["z"]
Note
This error code is a subcode of the wider [typeddict-item] code.
Check that type of target is known [has-type]¶
Mypy sometimes generates an error when it hasn’t inferred any type for
a variable being referenced. This can happen for references to
variables that are initialized later in the source file, and for
references across modules that form an import cycle. When this
happens, the reference gets an implicit Any type.
In this example the definitions of x and y are circular:
class Problem:
def set_x(self) -> None:
# Error: Cannot determine type of "y" [has-type]
self.x = self.y
def set_y(self) -> None:
self.y = self.x
To work around this error, you can add an explicit type annotation to the target variable or attribute. Sometimes you can also reorganize the code so that the definition of the variable is placed earlier than the reference to the variable in a source file. Untangling cyclic imports may also help.
We add an explicit annotation to the y attribute to work around
the issue:
class Problem:
def set_x(self) -> None:
self.x = self.y # OK
def set_y(self) -> None:
self.y: int = self.x # Added annotation here
Check for an issue with imports [import]¶
Mypy generates an error if it can’t resolve an import statement. This is a parent error code of import-not-found and import-untyped
See Missing imports for how to work around these errors.
Check that import target can be found [import-not-found]¶
Mypy generates an error if it can’t find the source code or a stub file for an imported module.
Example:
# Error: Cannot find implementation or library stub for module named "m0dule_with_typo" [import-not-found]
import m0dule_with_typo
See Missing imports for how to work around these errors.
Check that import target can be found [import-untyped]¶
Mypy generates an error if it can find the source code for an imported module, but that module does not provide type annotations (via PEP 561).
Example:
# Error: Library stubs not installed for "bs4" [import-untyped]
import bs4
# Error: Skipping analyzing "no_py_typed": module is installed, but missing library stubs or py.typed marker [import-untyped]
import no_py_typed
In some cases, these errors can be fixed by installing an appropriate stub package. See Missing imports for more details.
Check that each name is defined once [no-redef]¶
Mypy may generate an error if you have multiple definitions for a name in the same namespace. The reason is that this is often an error, as the second definition may overwrite the first one. Also, mypy often can’t be able to determine whether references point to the first or the second definition, which would compromise type checking.
If you silence this error, all references to the defined name refer to the first definition.
Example:
class A:
def __init__(self, x: int) -> None: ...
class A: # Error: Name "A" already defined on line 1 [no-redef]
def __init__(self, x: str) -> None: ...
# Error: Argument 1 to "A" has incompatible type "str"; expected "int"
# (the first definition wins!)
A('x')
Check that called function returns a value [func-returns-value]¶
Mypy reports an error if you call a function with a None
return type and don’t ignore the return value, as this is
usually (but not always) a programming error.
In this example, the if f() check is always false since f
returns None:
def f() -> None:
...
# OK: we don't do anything with the return value
f()
# Error: "f" does not return a value (it only ever returns None) [func-returns-value]
if f():
print("not false")
Check instantiation of abstract classes [abstract]¶
Mypy generates an error if you try to instantiate an abstract base
class (ABC). An abstract base class is a class with at least one
abstract method or attribute. (See also abc module documentation)
Sometimes a class is made accidentally abstract, often due to an unimplemented abstract method. In a case like this you need to provide an implementation for the method to make the class concrete (non-abstract).
Example:
from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod
class Persistent(metaclass=ABCMeta):
@abstractmethod
def save(self) -> None: ...
class Thing(Persistent):
def __init__(self) -> None:
...
... # No "save" method
# Error: Cannot instantiate abstract class "Thing" with abstract attribute "save" [abstract]
t = Thing()
Safe handling of abstract type object types [type-abstract]¶
Mypy always allows instantiating (calling) type objects typed as Type[t],
even if it is not known that t is non-abstract, since it is a common
pattern to create functions that act as object factories (custom constructors).
Therefore, to prevent issues described in the above section, when an abstract
type object is passed where Type[t] is expected, mypy will give an error.
Example:
from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod
from typing import List, Type, TypeVar
class Config(metaclass=ABCMeta):
@abstractmethod
def get_value(self, attr: str) -> str: ...
T = TypeVar("T")
def make_many(typ: Type[T], n: int) -> List[T]:
return [typ() for _ in range(n)] # This will raise if typ is abstract
# Error: Only concrete class can be given where "Type[Config]" is expected [type-abstract]
make_many(Config, 5)
Check that call to an abstract method via super is valid [safe-super]¶
Abstract methods often don’t have any default implementation, i.e. their
bodies are just empty. Calling such methods in subclasses via super()
will cause runtime errors, so mypy prevents you from doing so:
from abc import abstractmethod
class Base:
@abstractmethod
def foo(self) -> int: ...
class Sub(Base):
def foo(self) -> int:
return super().foo() + 1 # error: Call to abstract method "foo" of "Base" with
# trivial body via super() is unsafe [safe-super]
Sub().foo() # This will crash at runtime.
Mypy considers the following as trivial bodies: a pass statement, a literal
ellipsis ..., a docstring, and a raise NotImplementedError statement.
Check the target of NewType [valid-newtype]¶
The target of a NewType definition must be a class type. It can’t
be a union type, Any, or various other special types.
You can also get this error if the target has been imported from a
module whose source mypy cannot find, since any such definitions are
treated by mypy as values with Any types. Example:
from typing import NewType
# The source for "acme" is not available for mypy
from acme import Entity # type: ignore
# Error: Argument 2 to NewType(...) must be subclassable (got "Any") [valid-newtype]
UserEntity = NewType('UserEntity', Entity)
To work around the issue, you can either give mypy access to the sources
for acme or create a stub file for the module. See Missing imports
for more information.
Check the return type of __exit__ [exit-return]¶
If mypy can determine that __exit__ always returns False, mypy
checks that the return type is not bool. The boolean value of
the return type affects which lines mypy thinks are reachable after a
with statement, since any __exit__ method that can return
True may swallow exceptions. An imprecise return type can result
in mysterious errors reported near with statements.
To fix this, use either typing.Literal[False] or
None as the return type. Returning None is equivalent to
returning False in this context, since both are treated as false
values.
Example:
class MyContext:
...
def __exit__(self, exc, value, tb) -> bool: # Error
print('exit')
return False
This produces the following output from mypy:
example.py:3: error: "bool" is invalid as return type for "__exit__" that always returns False
example.py:3: note: Use "typing_extensions.Literal[False]" as the return type or change it to
"None"
example.py:3: note: If return type of "__exit__" implies that it may return True, the context
manager may swallow exceptions
You can use Literal[False] to fix the error:
from typing import Literal
class MyContext:
...
def __exit__(self, exc, value, tb) -> Literal[False]: # OK
print('exit')
return False
You can also use None:
class MyContext:
...
def __exit__(self, exc, value, tb) -> None: # Also OK
print('exit')
Check that naming is consistent [name-match]¶
The definition of a named tuple or a TypedDict must be named consistently when using the call-based syntax. Example:
from typing import NamedTuple
# Error: First argument to namedtuple() should be "Point2D", not "Point"
Point2D = NamedTuple("Point", [("x", int), ("y", int)])
Check that literal is used where expected [literal-required]¶
There are some places where only a (string) literal value is expected for
the purposes of static type checking, for example a TypedDict key, or
a __match_args__ item. Providing a str-valued variable in such contexts
will result in an error. Note that in many cases you can also use Final
or Literal variables. Example:
from typing import Final, Literal, TypedDict
class Point(TypedDict):
x: int
y: int
def test(p: Point) -> None:
X: Final = "x"
p[X] # OK
Y: Literal["y"] = "y"
p[Y] # OK
key = "x" # Inferred type of key is `str`
# Error: TypedDict key must be a string literal;
# expected one of ("x", "y") [literal-required]
p[key]
Check that overloaded functions have an implementation [no-overload-impl]¶
Overloaded functions outside of stub files must be followed by a non overloaded implementation.
from typing import overload
@overload
def func(value: int) -> int:
...
@overload
def func(value: str) -> str:
...
# presence of required function below is checked
def func(value):
pass # actual implementation
Check that coroutine return value is used [unused-coroutine]¶
Mypy ensures that return values of async def functions are not ignored, as this is usually a programming error, as the coroutine won’t be executed at the call site.
async def f() -> None:
...
async def g() -> None:
f() # Error: missing await
await f() # OK
You can work around this error by assigning the result to a temporary, otherwise unused variable:
_ = f() # No error
Warn about top level await expressions [top-level-await]¶
This error code is separate from the general [syntax] errors, because in
some environments (e.g. IPython) a top level await is allowed. In such
environments a user may want to use --disable-error-code=top-level-await,
that allows to still have errors for other improper uses of await, for
example:
async def f() -> None:
...
top = await f() # Error: "await" outside function [top-level-await]
Warn about await expressions used outside of coroutines [await-not-async]¶
await must be used inside a coroutine.
async def f() -> None:
...
def g() -> None:
await f() # Error: "await" outside coroutine ("async def") [await-not-async]
Check types in assert_type [assert-type]¶
The inferred type for an expression passed to assert_type must match
the provided type.
from typing_extensions import assert_type
assert_type([1], list[int]) # OK
assert_type([1], list[str]) # Error
Check that function isn’t used in boolean context [truthy-function]¶
Functions will always evaluate to true in boolean contexts.
def f():
...
if f: # Error: Function "Callable[[], Any]" could always be true in boolean context [truthy-function]
pass
Check that string formatting/interpolation is type-safe [str-format]¶
Mypy will check that f-strings, str.format() calls, and % interpolations
are valid (when corresponding template is a literal string). This includes
checking number and types of replacements, for example:
# Error: Cannot find replacement for positional format specifier 1 [str-format]
"{} and {}".format("spam")
"{} and {}".format("spam", "eggs") # OK
# Error: Not all arguments converted during string formatting [str-format]
"{} and {}".format("spam", "eggs", "cheese")
# Error: Incompatible types in string interpolation
# (expression has type "float", placeholder has type "int") [str-format]
"{:d}".format(3.14)
Check for implicit bytes coercions [str-bytes-safe]¶
Warn about cases where a bytes object may be converted to a string in an unexpected manner.
b = b"abc"
# Error: If x = b'abc' then f"{x}" or "{}".format(x) produces "b'abc'", not "abc".
# If this is desired behavior, use f"{x!r}" or "{!r}".format(x).
# Otherwise, decode the bytes [str-bytes-safe]
print(f"The alphabet starts with {b}")
# Okay
print(f"The alphabet starts with {b!r}") # The alphabet starts with b'abc'
print(f"The alphabet starts with {b.decode('utf-8')}") # The alphabet starts with abc
Check that overloaded functions don’t overlap [overload-overlap]¶
Warn if multiple @overload variants overlap in potentially unsafe ways.
This guards against the following situation:
from typing import overload
class A: ...
class B(A): ...
@overload
def foo(x: B) -> int: ... # Error: Overloaded function signatures 1 and 2 overlap with incompatible return types [overload-overlap]
@overload
def foo(x: A) -> str: ...
def foo(x): ...
def takes_a(a: A) -> str:
return foo(a)
a: A = B()
value = takes_a(a)
# mypy will think that value is a str, but it could actually be an int
reveal_type(value) # Revealed type is "builtins.str"
Note that in cases where you ignore this error, mypy will usually still infer the types you expect.
See overloading for more explanation.
Notify about an annotation in an unchecked function [annotation-unchecked]¶
Sometimes a user may accidentally omit an annotation for a function, and mypy
will not check the body of this function (unless one uses
--check-untyped-defs or
--disallow-untyped-defs). To avoid
such situations go unnoticed, mypy will show a note, if there are any type
annotations in an unchecked function:
def test_assignment(): # "-> None" return annotation is missing
# Note: By default the bodies of untyped functions are not checked,
# consider using --check-untyped-defs [annotation-unchecked]
x: int = "no way"
Note that mypy will still exit with return code 0, since such behaviour is
specified by PEP 484.
Report syntax errors [syntax]¶
If the code being checked is not syntactically valid, mypy issues a
syntax error. Most, but not all, syntax errors are blocking errors:
they can’t be ignored with a # type: ignore comment.
Miscellaneous checks [misc]¶
Mypy performs numerous other, less commonly failing checks that don’t
have specific error codes. These use the misc error code. Other
than being used for multiple unrelated errors, the misc error code
is not special. For example, you can ignore all errors in this
category by using # type: ignore[misc] comment. Since these errors
are not expected to be common, it’s unlikely that you’ll see two
different errors with the misc code on a single line – though
this can certainly happen once in a while.
Note
Future mypy versions will likely add new error codes for some errors
that currently use the misc error code.
Error codes for optional checks¶
This section documents various errors codes that mypy generates only if you enable certain options. See Error codes for general documentation about error codes. Error codes enabled by default documents error codes that are enabled by default.
Note
The examples in this section use inline configuration to specify mypy options. You can also set the same options by using a configuration file or command-line options.
Check that type arguments exist [type-arg]¶
If you use --disallow-any-generics, mypy requires that each generic
type has values for each type argument. For example, the types list or
dict would be rejected. You should instead use types like list[int] or
dict[str, int]. Any omitted generic type arguments get implicit Any
values. The type list is equivalent to list[Any], and so on.
Example:
# mypy: disallow-any-generics
# Error: Missing type parameters for generic type "list" [type-arg]
def remove_dups(items: list) -> list:
...
Check that every function has an annotation [no-untyped-def]¶
If you use --disallow-untyped-defs, mypy requires that all functions
have annotations (either a Python 3 annotation or a type comment).
Example:
# mypy: disallow-untyped-defs
def inc(x): # Error: Function is missing a type annotation [no-untyped-def]
return x + 1
def inc_ok(x: int) -> int: # OK
return x + 1
class Counter:
# Error: Function is missing a type annotation [no-untyped-def]
def __init__(self):
self.value = 0
class CounterOk:
# OK: An explicit "-> None" is needed if "__init__" takes no arguments
def __init__(self) -> None:
self.value = 0
Check that cast is not redundant [redundant-cast]¶
If you use --warn-redundant-casts, mypy will generate an error if the source
type of a cast is the same as the target type.
Example:
# mypy: warn-redundant-casts
from typing import cast
Count = int
def example(x: Count) -> int:
# Error: Redundant cast to "int" [redundant-cast]
return cast(int, x)
Check that methods do not have redundant Self annotations [redundant-self]¶
If a method uses the Self type in the return type or the type of a
non-self argument, there is no need to annotate the self argument
explicitly. Such annotations are allowed by PEP 673 but are
redundant. If you enable this error code, mypy will generate an error if
there is a redundant Self type.
Example:
# mypy: enable-error-code="redundant-self"
from typing import Self
class C:
# Error: Redundant "Self" annotation for the first method argument
def copy(self: Self) -> Self:
return type(self)()
Check that comparisons are overlapping [comparison-overlap]¶
If you use --strict-equality, mypy will generate an error if it
thinks that a comparison operation is always true or false. These are
often bugs. Sometimes mypy is too picky and the comparison can
actually be useful. Instead of disabling strict equality checking
everywhere, you can use # type: ignore[comparison-overlap] to
ignore the issue on a particular line only.
Example:
# mypy: strict-equality
def is_magic(x: bytes) -> bool:
# Error: Non-overlapping equality check (left operand type: "bytes",
# right operand type: "str") [comparison-overlap]
return x == 'magic'
We can fix the error by changing the string literal to a bytes literal:
# mypy: strict-equality
def is_magic(x: bytes) -> bool:
return x == b'magic' # OK
Check that no untyped functions are called [no-untyped-call]¶
If you use --disallow-untyped-calls, mypy generates an error when you
call an unannotated function in an annotated function.
Example:
# mypy: disallow-untyped-calls
def do_it() -> None:
# Error: Call to untyped function "bad" in typed context [no-untyped-call]
bad()
def bad():
...
Check that function does not return Any value [no-any-return]¶
If you use --warn-return-any, mypy generates an error if you return a
value with an Any type in a function that is annotated to return a
non-Any value.
Example:
# mypy: warn-return-any
def fields(s):
return s.split(',')
def first_field(x: str) -> str:
# Error: Returning Any from function declared to return "str" [no-any-return]
return fields(x)[0]
Check that types have no Any components due to missing imports [no-any-unimported]¶
If you use --disallow-any-unimported, mypy generates an error if a component of
a type becomes Any because mypy couldn’t resolve an import. These “stealth”
Any types can be surprising and accidentally cause imprecise type checking.
In this example, we assume that mypy can’t find the module animals, which means
that Cat falls back to Any in a type annotation:
# mypy: disallow-any-unimported
from animals import Cat # type: ignore
# Error: Argument 1 to "feed" becomes "Any" due to an unfollowed import [no-any-unimported]
def feed(cat: Cat) -> None:
...
Check that statement or expression is unreachable [unreachable]¶
If you use --warn-unreachable, mypy generates an error if it
thinks that a statement or expression will never be executed. In most cases, this is due to
incorrect control flow or conditional checks that are accidentally always true or false.
# mypy: warn-unreachable
def example(x: int) -> None:
# Error: Right operand of "or" is never evaluated [unreachable]
assert isinstance(x, int) or x == 'unused'
return
# Error: Statement is unreachable [unreachable]
print('unreachable')
Check that expression is redundant [redundant-expr]¶
If you use --enable-error-code redundant-expr,
mypy generates an error if it thinks that an expression is redundant.
# Use "mypy --enable-error-code redundant-expr ..."
def example(x: int) -> None:
# Error: Left operand of "and" is always true [redundant-expr]
if isinstance(x, int) and x > 0:
pass
# Error: If condition is always true [redundant-expr]
1 if isinstance(x, int) else 0
# Error: If condition in comprehension is always true [redundant-expr]
[i for i in range(x) if isinstance(i, int)]
Warn about variables that are defined only in some execution paths [possibly-undefined]¶
If you use --enable-error-code possibly-undefined,
mypy generates an error if it cannot verify that a variable will be defined in
all execution paths. This includes situations when a variable definition
appears in a loop, in a conditional branch, in an except handler, etc. For
example:
# Use "mypy --enable-error-code possibly-undefined ..."
from typing import Iterable
def test(values: Iterable[int], flag: bool) -> None:
if flag:
a = 1
z = a + 1 # Error: Name "a" may be undefined [possibly-undefined]
for v in values:
b = v
z = b + 1 # Error: Name "b" may be undefined [possibly-undefined]
Check that expression is not implicitly true in boolean context [truthy-bool]¶
Warn when the type of an expression in a boolean context does not
implement __bool__ or __len__. Unless one of these is
implemented by a subtype, the expression will always be considered
true, and there may be a bug in the condition.
As an exception, the object type is allowed in a boolean context.
Using an iterable value in a boolean context has a separate error code
(see below).
# Use "mypy --enable-error-code truthy-bool ..."
class Foo:
pass
foo = Foo()
# Error: "foo" has type "Foo" which does not implement __bool__ or __len__ so it could always be true in boolean context
if foo:
...
Check that iterable is not implicitly true in boolean context [truthy-iterable]¶
Generate an error if a value of type Iterable is used as a boolean
condition, since Iterable does not implement __len__ or __bool__.
Example:
from typing import Iterable
def transform(items: Iterable[int]) -> list[int]:
# Error: "items" has type "Iterable[int]" which can always be true in boolean context. Consider using "Collection[int]" instead. [truthy-iterable]
if not items:
return [42]
return [x + 1 for x in items]
If transform is called with a Generator argument, such as
int(x) for x in [], this function would not return [42] unlike
what might be intended. Of course, it’s possible that transform is
only called with list or other container objects, and the if not
items check is actually valid. If that is the case, it is
recommended to annotate items as Collection[int] instead of
Iterable[int].
Check that # type: ignore include an error code [ignore-without-code]¶
Warn when a # type: ignore comment does not specify any error codes.
This clarifies the intent of the ignore and ensures that only the
expected errors are silenced.
Example:
# Use "mypy --enable-error-code ignore-without-code ..."
class Foo:
def __init__(self, name: str) -> None:
self.name = name
f = Foo('foo')
# This line has a typo that mypy can't help with as both:
# - the expected error 'assignment', and
# - the unexpected error 'attr-defined'
# are silenced.
# Error: "type: ignore" comment without error code (consider "type: ignore[attr-defined]" instead)
f.nme = 42 # type: ignore
# This line warns correctly about the typo in the attribute name
# Error: "Foo" has no attribute "nme"; maybe "name"?
f.nme = 42 # type: ignore[assignment]
Check that awaitable return value is used [unused-awaitable]¶
If you use --enable-error-code unused-awaitable,
mypy generates an error if you don’t use a returned value that defines __await__.
Example:
# Use "mypy --enable-error-code unused-awaitable ..."
import asyncio
async def f() -> int: ...
async def g() -> None:
# Error: Value of type "Task[int]" must be used
# Are you missing an await?
asyncio.create_task(f())
You can assign the value to a temporary, otherwise unused to variable to silence the error:
async def g() -> None:
_ = asyncio.create_task(f()) # No error
Check that # type: ignore comment is used [unused-ignore]¶
If you use --enable-error-code unused-ignore,
or --warn-unused-ignores
mypy generates an error if you don’t use a # type: ignore comment, i.e. if
there is a comment, but there would be no error generated by mypy on this line
anyway.
Example:
# Use "mypy --warn-unused-ignores ..."
def add(a: int, b: int) -> int:
# Error: unused "type: ignore" comment
return a + b # type: ignore
Note that due to a specific nature of this comment, the only way to selectively
silence it, is to include the error code explicitly. Also note that this error is
not shown if the # type: ignore is not used due to code being statically
unreachable (e.g. due to platform or version checks).
Example:
# Use "mypy --warn-unused-ignores ..."
import sys
try:
# The "[unused-ignore]" is needed to get a clean mypy run
# on both Python 3.8, and 3.9 where this module was added
import graphlib # type: ignore[import,unused-ignore]
except ImportError:
pass
if sys.version_info >= (3, 9):
# The following will not generate an error on either
# Python 3.8, or Python 3.9
42 + "testing..." # type: ignore
Check that @override is used when overriding a base class method [explicit-override]¶
If you use --enable-error-code explicit-override
mypy generates an error if you override a base class method without using the
@override decorator. An error will not be emitted for overrides of __init__
or __new__. See PEP 698.
Note
Starting with Python 3.12, the @override decorator can be imported from typing.
To use it with older Python versions, import it from typing_extensions instead.
Example:
# Use "mypy --enable-error-code explicit-override ..."
from typing import override
class Parent:
def f(self, x: int) -> None:
pass
def g(self, y: int) -> None:
pass
class Child(Parent):
def f(self, x: int) -> None: # Error: Missing @override decorator
pass
@override
def g(self, y: int) -> None:
pass
Check that overrides of mutable attributes are safe [mutable-override]¶
mutable-override will enable the check for unsafe overrides of mutable attributes. For historical reasons, and because this is a relatively common pattern in Python, this check is not enabled by default. The example below is unsafe, and will be flagged when this error code is enabled:
from typing import Any
class C:
x: float
y: float
z: float
class D(C):
x: int # Error: Covariant override of a mutable attribute
# (base class "C" defined the type as "float",
# expression has type "int") [mutable-override]
y: float # OK
z: Any # OK
def f(c: C) -> None:
c.x = 1.1
d = D()
f(d)
d.x >> 1 # This will crash at runtime, because d.x is now float, not an int
Check that reveal_type is imported from typing or typing_extensions [unimported-reveal]¶
Mypy used to have reveal_type as a special builtin
that only existed during type-checking.
In runtime it fails with expected NameError,
which can cause real problem in production, hidden from mypy.
But, in Python3.11 typing.reveal_type() was added.
typing_extensions ported this helper to all supported Python versions.
Now users can actually import reveal_type to make the runtime code safe.
Note
Starting with Python 3.11, the reveal_type function can be imported from typing.
To use it with older Python versions, import it from typing_extensions instead.
# Use "mypy --enable-error-code unimported-reveal"
x = 1
reveal_type(x) # Note: Revealed type is "builtins.int" \
# Error: Name "reveal_type" is not defined
Correct usage:
# Use "mypy --enable-error-code unimported-reveal"
from typing import reveal_type # or `typing_extensions`
x = 1
# This won't raise an error:
reveal_type(x) # Note: Revealed type is "builtins.int"
When this code is enabled, using reveal_locals is always an error,
because there’s no way one can import it.
Check that TypeIs narrows types [narrowed-type-not-subtype]¶
PEP 742 requires that when TypeIs is used, the narrowed
type must be a subtype of the original type:
from typing_extensions import TypeIs
def f(x: int) -> TypeIs[str]: # Error, str is not a subtype of int
...
def g(x: object) -> TypeIs[str]: # OK
...
Additional features¶
This section discusses various features that did not fit in naturally in one of the previous sections.
Dataclasses¶
The dataclasses module allows defining and customizing simple
boilerplate-free classes. They can be defined using the
@dataclasses.dataclass decorator:
from dataclasses import dataclass, field
@dataclass
class Application:
name: str
plugins: list[str] = field(default_factory=list)
test = Application("Testing...") # OK
bad = Application("Testing...", "with plugin") # Error: list[str] expected
Mypy will detect special methods (such as __lt__) depending on the flags used to
define dataclasses. For example:
from dataclasses import dataclass
@dataclass(order=True)
class OrderedPoint:
x: int
y: int
@dataclass(order=False)
class UnorderedPoint:
x: int
y: int
OrderedPoint(1, 2) < OrderedPoint(3, 4) # OK
UnorderedPoint(1, 2) < UnorderedPoint(3, 4) # Error: Unsupported operand types
Dataclasses can be generic and can be used in any other way a normal class can be used:
from dataclasses import dataclass
from typing import Generic, TypeVar
T = TypeVar('T')
@dataclass
class BoxedData(Generic[T]):
data: T
label: str
def unbox(bd: BoxedData[T]) -> T:
...
val = unbox(BoxedData(42, "<important>")) # OK, inferred type is int
For more information see official docs and PEP 557.
Caveats/Known Issues¶
Some functions in the dataclasses module, such as asdict(),
have imprecise (too permissive) types. This will be fixed in future releases.
Mypy does not yet recognize aliases of dataclasses.dataclass, and will
probably never recognize dynamically computed decorators. The following example
does not work:
from dataclasses import dataclass
dataclass_alias = dataclass
def dataclass_wrapper(cls):
return dataclass(cls)
@dataclass_alias
class AliasDecorated:
"""
Mypy doesn't recognize this as a dataclass because it is decorated by an
alias of `dataclass` rather than by `dataclass` itself.
"""
attribute: int
AliasDecorated(attribute=1) # error: Unexpected keyword argument
To have Mypy recognize a wrapper of dataclasses.dataclass
as a dataclass decorator, consider using the dataclass_transform() decorator:
from dataclasses import dataclass, Field
from typing import TypeVar, dataclass_transform
T = TypeVar('T')
@dataclass_transform(field_specifiers=(Field,))
def my_dataclass(cls: type[T]) -> type[T]:
...
return dataclass(cls)
Data Class Transforms¶
Mypy supports the dataclass_transform() decorator as described in
PEP 681.
Note
Pragmatically, mypy will assume such classes have the internal attribute __dataclass_fields__
(even though they might lack it in runtime) and will assume functions such as dataclasses.is_dataclass()
and dataclasses.fields() treat them as if they were dataclasses
(even though they may fail at runtime).
The attrs package¶
attrs is a package that lets you define classes without writing boilerplate code. Mypy can detect uses of the package and will generate the necessary method definitions for decorated classes using the type annotations it finds. Type annotations can be added as follows:
import attr
@attrs.define
class A:
one: int
two: int = 7
three: int = attrs.field(8)
If you’re using auto_attribs=False you must use attrs.field:
import attrs
@attrs.define
class A:
one: int = attrs.field() # Variable annotation (Python 3.6+)
two = attrs.field() # type: int # Type comment
three = attrs.field(type=int) # type= argument
Typeshed has a couple of “white lie” annotations to make type checking
easier. attrs.field() and attrs.Factory actually return objects, but the
annotation says these return the types that they expect to be assigned to.
That enables this to work:
import attrs
@attrs.define
class A:
one: int = attrs.field(8)
two: dict[str, str] = attrs.Factory(dict)
bad: str = attrs.field(16) # Error: can't assign int to str
Caveats/Known Issues¶
The detection of attr classes and attributes works by function name only. This means that if you have your own helper functions that, for example,
return attrs.field()mypy will not see them.All boolean arguments that mypy cares about must be literal
TrueorFalse. e.g the following will not work:import attrs YES = True @attrs.define(init=YES) class A: ...
Currently,
converteronly supports named functions. If mypy finds something else it will complain about not understanding the argument and the type annotation in__init__will be replaced byAny.Validator decorators and default decorators are not type-checked against the attribute they are setting/validating.
Method definitions added by mypy currently overwrite any existing method definitions.
Using a remote cache to speed up mypy runs¶
Mypy performs type checking incrementally, reusing results from previous runs to speed up successive runs. If you are type checking a large codebase, mypy can still be sometimes slower than desirable. For example, if you create a new branch based on a much more recent commit than the target of the previous mypy run, mypy may have to process almost every file, as a large fraction of source files may have changed. This can also happen after you’ve rebased a local branch.
Mypy supports using a remote cache to improve performance in cases such as the above. In a large codebase, remote caching can sometimes speed up mypy runs by a factor of 10, or more.
Mypy doesn’t include all components needed to set this up – generally you will have to perform some simple integration with your Continuous Integration (CI) or build system to configure mypy to use a remote cache. This discussion assumes you have a CI system set up for the mypy build you want to speed up, and that you are using a central git repository. Generalizing to different environments should not be difficult.
Here are the main components needed:
A shared repository for storing mypy cache files for all landed commits.
CI build that uploads mypy incremental cache files to the shared repository for each commit for which the CI build runs.
A wrapper script around mypy that developers use to run mypy with remote caching enabled.
Below we discuss each of these components in some detail.
Continuous Integration build¶
The CI build would run a regular mypy build and create an archive containing
the .mypy_cache directory produced by the build. Finally, it will produce
the cache as a build artifact or upload it to a repository where it is
accessible by the mypy wrapper script.
Your CI script might work like this:
Run mypy normally. This will generate cache data under the
.mypy_cachedirectory.Create a tarball from the
.mypy_cachedirectory.Determine the current git master branch commit id (say, using
git rev-parse HEAD).Upload the tarball to the shared repository with a name derived from the commit id.
Mypy wrapper script¶
The wrapper script is used by developers to run mypy locally during
development instead of invoking mypy directly. The wrapper first
populates the local .mypy_cache directory from the shared
repository and then runs a normal incremental build.
The wrapper script needs some logic to determine the most recent
central repository commit (by convention, the origin/master branch
for git) the local development branch is based on. In a typical git
setup you can do it like this:
git merge-base HEAD origin/master
The next step is to download the cache data (contents of the
.mypy_cache directory) from the shared repository based on the
commit id of the merge base produced by the git command above. The
script will decompress the data so that mypy will start with a fresh
.mypy_cache. Finally, the script runs mypy normally. And that’s all!
Caching with mypy daemon¶
You can also use remote caching with the mypy daemon.
The remote cache will significantly speed up the first dmypy check
run after starting or restarting the daemon.
The mypy daemon requires extra fine-grained dependency data in
the cache files which aren’t included by default. To use caching with
the mypy daemon, use the --cache-fine-grained option in your CI
build:
$ mypy --cache-fine-grained <args...>
This flag adds extra information for the daemon to the cache. In
order to use this extra information, you will also need to use the
--use-fine-grained-cache option with dmypy start or
dmypy restart. Example:
$ dmypy start -- --use-fine-grained-cache <options...>
Now your first dmypy check run should be much faster, as it can use
cache information to avoid processing the whole program.
Refinements¶
There are several optional refinements that may improve things further, at least if your codebase is hundreds of thousands of lines or more:
If the wrapper script determines that the merge base hasn’t changed from a previous run, there’s no need to download the cache data and it’s better to instead reuse the existing local cache data.
If you use the mypy daemon, you may want to restart the daemon each time after the merge base or local branch has changed to avoid processing a potentially large number of changes in an incremental build, as this can be much slower than downloading cache data and restarting the daemon.
If the current local branch is based on a very recent master commit, the remote cache data may not yet be available for that commit, as there will necessarily be some latency to build the cache files. It may be a good idea to look for cache data for, say, the 5 latest master commits and use the most recent data that is available.
If the remote cache is not accessible for some reason (say, from a public network), the script can still fall back to a normal incremental build.
You can have multiple local cache directories for different local branches using the
--cache-diroption. If the user switches to an existing branch where downloaded cache data is already available, you can continue to use the existing cache data instead of redownloading the data.You can set up your CI build to use a remote cache to speed up the CI build. This would be particularly useful if each CI build starts from a fresh state without access to cache files from previous builds. It’s still recommended to run a full, non-incremental mypy build to create the cache data, as repeatedly updating cache data incrementally could result in drift over a long time period (due to a mypy caching issue, perhaps).
Extended Callable types¶
Note
This feature is deprecated. You can use callback protocols as a replacement.
As an experimental mypy extension, you can specify Callable types
that support keyword arguments, optional arguments, and more. When
you specify the arguments of a Callable, you can choose to supply just
the type of a nameless positional argument, or an “argument specifier”
representing a more complicated form of argument. This allows one to
more closely emulate the full range of possibilities given by the
def statement in Python.
As an example, here’s a complicated function definition and the
corresponding Callable:
from typing import Callable
from mypy_extensions import (Arg, DefaultArg, NamedArg,
DefaultNamedArg, VarArg, KwArg)
def func(__a: int, # This convention is for nameless arguments
b: int,
c: int = 0,
*args: int,
d: int,
e: int = 0,
**kwargs: int) -> int:
...
F = Callable[[int, # Or Arg(int)
Arg(int, 'b'),
DefaultArg(int, 'c'),
VarArg(int),
NamedArg(int, 'd'),
DefaultNamedArg(int, 'e'),
KwArg(int)],
int]
f: F = func
Argument specifiers are special function calls that can specify the following aspects of an argument:
its type (the only thing that the basic format supports)
its name (if it has one)
whether it may be omitted
whether it may or must be passed using a keyword
whether it is a
*argsargument (representing the remaining positional arguments)whether it is a
**kwargsargument (representing the remaining keyword arguments)
The following functions are available in mypy_extensions for this
purpose:
def Arg(type=Any, name=None):
# A normal, mandatory, positional argument.
# If the name is specified it may be passed as a keyword.
def DefaultArg(type=Any, name=None):
# An optional positional argument (i.e. with a default value).
# If the name is specified it may be passed as a keyword.
def NamedArg(type=Any, name=None):
# A mandatory keyword-only argument.
def DefaultNamedArg(type=Any, name=None):
# An optional keyword-only argument (i.e. with a default value).
def VarArg(type=Any):
# A *args-style variadic positional argument.
# A single VarArg() specifier represents all remaining
# positional arguments.
def KwArg(type=Any):
# A **kwargs-style variadic keyword argument.
# A single KwArg() specifier represents all remaining
# keyword arguments.
In all cases, the type argument defaults to Any, and if the
name argument is omitted the argument has no name (the name is
required for NamedArg and DefaultNamedArg). A basic
Callable such as
MyFunc = Callable[[int, str, int], float]
is equivalent to the following:
MyFunc = Callable[[Arg(int), Arg(str), Arg(int)], float]
A Callable with unspecified argument types, such as
MyOtherFunc = Callable[..., int]
is (roughly) equivalent to
MyOtherFunc = Callable[[VarArg(), KwArg()], int]
Note
Each of the functions above currently just returns its type
argument at runtime, so the information contained in the argument
specifiers is not available at runtime. This limitation is
necessary for backwards compatibility with the existing
typing.py module as present in the Python 3.5+ standard library
and distributed via PyPI.
Frequently Asked Questions¶
Why have both dynamic and static typing?¶
Dynamic typing can be flexible, powerful, convenient and easy. But it’s not always the best approach; there are good reasons why many developers choose to use statically typed languages or static typing for Python.
Here are some potential benefits of mypy-style static typing:
Static typing can make programs easier to understand and maintain. Type declarations can serve as machine-checked documentation. This is important as code is typically read much more often than modified, and this is especially important for large and complex programs.
Static typing can help you find bugs earlier and with less testing and debugging. Especially in large and complex projects this can be a major time-saver.
Static typing can help you find difficult-to-find bugs before your code goes into production. This can improve reliability and reduce the number of security issues.
Static typing makes it practical to build very useful development tools that can improve programming productivity or software quality, including IDEs with precise and reliable code completion, static analysis tools, etc.
You can get the benefits of both dynamic and static typing in a single language. Dynamic typing can be perfect for a small project or for writing the UI of your program, for example. As your program grows, you can adapt tricky application logic to static typing to help maintenance.
See also the front page of the mypy web site.
Would my project benefit from static typing?¶
For many projects dynamic typing is perfectly fine (we think that Python is a great language). But sometimes your projects demand bigger guns, and that’s when mypy may come in handy.
If some of these ring true for your projects, mypy (and static typing) may be useful:
Your project is large or complex.
Your codebase must be maintained for a long time.
Multiple developers are working on the same code.
Running tests takes a lot of time or work (type checking helps you find errors quickly early in development, reducing the number of testing iterations).
Some project members (devs or management) don’t like dynamic typing, but others prefer dynamic typing and Python syntax. Mypy could be a solution that everybody finds easy to accept.
You want to future-proof your project even if currently none of the above really apply. The earlier you start, the easier it will be to adopt static typing.
Can I use mypy to type check my existing Python code?¶
Mypy supports most Python features and idioms, and many large Python projects are using mypy successfully. Code that uses complex introspection or metaprogramming may be impractical to type check, but it should still be possible to use static typing in other parts of a codebase that are less dynamic.
Will static typing make my programs run faster?¶
Mypy only does static type checking and it does not improve performance. It has a minimal performance impact. In the future, there could be other tools that can compile statically typed mypy code to C modules or to efficient JVM bytecode, for example, but this is outside the scope of the mypy project.
Is mypy free?¶
Yes. Mypy is free software, and it can also be used for commercial and proprietary projects. Mypy is available under the MIT license.
Can I use duck typing with mypy?¶
Mypy provides support for both nominal subtyping and
structural subtyping.
Structural subtyping can be thought of as “static duck typing”.
Some argue that structural subtyping is better suited for languages with duck
typing such as Python. Mypy however primarily uses nominal subtyping,
leaving structural subtyping mostly opt-in (except for built-in protocols
such as Iterable that always support structural subtyping). Here are some
reasons why:
It is easy to generate short and informative error messages when using a nominal type system. This is especially important when using type inference.
Python provides built-in support for nominal
isinstance()tests and they are widely used in programs. Only limited support for structuralisinstance()is available, and it’s less type safe than nominal type tests.Many programmers are already familiar with static, nominal subtyping and it has been successfully used in languages such as Java, C++ and C#. Fewer languages use structural subtyping.
However, structural subtyping can also be useful. For example, a “public API” may be more flexible if it is typed with protocols. Also, using protocol types removes the necessity to explicitly declare implementations of ABCs. As a rule of thumb, we recommend using nominal classes where possible, and protocols where necessary. For more details about protocol types and structural subtyping see Protocols and structural subtyping and PEP 544.
I like Python and I have no need for static typing¶
The aim of mypy is not to convince everybody to write statically typed Python – static typing is entirely optional, now and in the future. The goal is to give more options for Python programmers, to make Python a more competitive alternative to other statically typed languages in large projects, to improve programmer productivity, and to improve software quality.
How are mypy programs different from normal Python?¶
Since you use a vanilla Python implementation to run mypy programs, mypy programs are also Python programs. The type checker may give warnings for some valid Python code, but the code is still always runnable. Also, some Python features and syntax are still not supported by mypy, but this is gradually improving.
The obvious difference is the availability of static type checking. The section Common issues and solutions mentions some modifications to Python code that may be required to make code type check without errors. Also, your code must make attributes explicit.
Mypy supports modular, efficient type checking, and this seems to rule out type checking some language features, such as arbitrary monkey patching of methods.
How is mypy different from Cython?¶
Cython is a variant of Python that supports compilation to CPython C modules. It can give major speedups to certain classes of programs compared to CPython, and it provides static typing (though this is different from mypy). Mypy differs in the following aspects, among others:
Cython is much more focused on performance than mypy. Mypy is only about static type checking, and increasing performance is not a direct goal.
The mypy syntax is arguably simpler and more “Pythonic” (no cdef/cpdef, etc.) for statically typed code.
The mypy syntax is compatible with Python. Mypy programs are normal Python programs that can be run using any Python implementation. Cython has many incompatible extensions to Python syntax, and Cython programs generally cannot be run without first compiling them to CPython extension modules via C. Cython also has a pure Python mode, but it seems to support only a subset of Cython functionality, and the syntax is quite verbose.
Mypy has a different set of type system features. For example, mypy has genericity (parametric polymorphism), function types and bidirectional type inference, which are not supported by Cython. (Cython has fused types that are different but related to mypy generics. Mypy also has a similar feature as an extension of generics.)
The mypy type checker knows about the static types of many Python stdlib modules and can effectively type check code that uses them.
Cython supports accessing C functions directly and many features are defined in terms of translating them to C or C++. Mypy just uses Python semantics, and mypy does not deal with accessing C library functionality.
Does it run on PyPy?¶
Somewhat. With PyPy 3.8, mypy is at least able to type check itself. With older versions of PyPy, mypy relies on typed-ast, which uses several APIs that PyPy does not support (including some internal CPython APIs).
Mypy is a cool project. Can I help?¶
Any help is much appreciated! Contact the developers if you would like to contribute. Any help related to development, design, publicity, documentation, testing, web site maintenance, financing, etc. can be helpful. You can learn a lot by contributing, and anybody can help, even beginners! However, some knowledge of compilers and/or type systems is essential if you want to work on mypy internals.